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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



JUN 14)186 



THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 



AND 



METHODOLOGY. 



BASED ON HAGENBACH AND KRAUTH. 



BY 

REVERE FRANKLIN WEIDNER, 

Professor of Theology in Angustana Theological Seminary, Rock Island, Illinois. 



PART II. 



HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

i. Sacred History. 

2. Biblical Theology of the Old Testament. 



PHILADELPHIA: 

H. B. GARNER, 710 ARCH STREET, 

Successor to Smith, English & Co. 

1886. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY 



OF THE 



OLD TESTAMENT 



/ 



BASED ON OEHLER. 



BY 



REVERE FRANKLIN WEIDNER, 

Professor of Theology in j4ugustana Theological Seminary, Rock Island, Illinois. 




PHILADELPHIA : 

H. B. GARNER, 710 ARCH STREET 

Successor to Smith, English & Co. 

1886. 



37fng 
•W4- 



COPYRIGHT 1886, 

BY 

REVERE FRANKLIN WEIDNER. 



AUGUST ANA BOOK CONCERN, 

PRINTERS. 

Rock Island. 111. 



TO 

THE VENERABLE 

FRANZ DELITZSCH, PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY 

in the University of Leipsic, 

A Prince among Commentators, 

The Author of 

"A System of Biblical Psychology," 

whose writings have opened to me the depths of the 

Old Testament Scriptures, 

this book is 

respectfully dedicated. 



In Press. 

Part II. Historical Theology. 

3. Biblical Theology of the New Testament. 

In Preparation. 

Part III. Systematic Theology. 
Part IV. Practical Theology. 



PREFACE. 

Biblical Theology is one of the more recent branches of 
Theology. Our older theologians did not distinguish between 
Dogmatic and Biblical Theology. During the whole develop- 
ment of Church doctrine down to the middle of the present 
century, no distinct line was drawn between the essential con- 
tents of revelation as they are laid down in the Scriptures and 
the doctrinal formulas elaborated from them; and still less were 
the successive stages of revelation and the types of doctrine 
which are presented in Scripture, recognized. The Bible was 
supposed to attest equally, in the Old and New Testaments, 
the truths which the Church has accepted as doctrines, — the 
Old Testament being used in all its parts, just like the New 
Testament, for proofs of doctrine. 

But our modern theologians maintain that the Old and New 
Testament stand to each other in the relation of preparation 
and fulfilment, — that their unity must not be understood as 
identity, — that the Old Testament itself acknowledges that the 
manifestation of God's kingdom at that time was imperfect and 
temporary,— that still more distinctly does the New Testament 
emphasize the difference from the Old which subsists within 
the unity of the two Testaments, — that the eternal counsel of 
salvation, although announced by the prophets, is nevertheless 
not completely revealed till after its actual realization, — that 
the tuition of the law reached its goal in the grace and truth of 
Christ, — that the unity of the Old and New Testament must 
not be conceived of as an identity of doctrine, but as a gradu- 
ally advancing process of development of doctrine, — that in 
setting forth the doctrines of the Bible systematically we must 
recognize the general development which revelation passes 
through in Scripture itself, — and that the old atomistic system 
of Scripture proof must be superseded by one which shows 
that the truths of salvation formulated in doctrinal statements 
are the result of the whole process through which revelation has 
passed. 



VIII 

We distinguish, therefore, between Biblical Theology and 
Systematic Theology. For Christian Dogmatics or Systematic 
Theology is a historico — philosophical science, in which the 
results of historical exegesis are unified and systematized. It 
is the sum of the truths embraced in the Christian faith in their 
organic connection with the facts of religious consciousness. 
Biblical Theology, on the other hand, has for its aim to rep- 
resent the religious ideas and doctrines which are contained in 
the Bible, and is a purely historical discipline. Systematic 
Theology takes the results of Biblical Theology for granted, 
and works with them as its material. Some even go so far as 
to distinguish between Biblical Theology and Biblical Dog- 
matics, in which the former has to do with the variety of bibli- 
cal forms of teaching, and the latter with the examination of 
the doctrines and ideas of the sacred writers which Biblical 
Theology brings out and with their presentation in a systematic 
form. According to this view, Christian Dogmatics or Syste- 
matic Theology must be based upon Biblical Dogmatics, 
which again must be based upon the results of Biblical The- 
ology. 

Of late Systematic Theology has been somewhat neglected 
in certain parts of the Protestant world, and indeed has fallen 
into disrepute, more stress being laid upon the results of Bibli- 
cal Theology. We are told that in Systematic Theology we 
have the deductions and speculations of men while in Biblical 
Theology we have the pure teaching of the Word of God. But 
let us not forget that the man who takes up the Bible now 
without reference to what has been done towards its elucidation 
in the past, and without being guided by the development of 
doctrine, is exactly as foolish as the man who would undertake 
to take up any branch of science without regard to what has 
been done before. 

Biblical Theology naturally divides itself into that 
of the Old Testament and that of the New, and there 
is no discipline of theological science which is more important, 
and on which more depends. Our aim, in this work, is to pre- 
sent in a concise and still full form the Theology of the Old 



IX 

Testament. No one can present such a theology in its fullness 
and scientific precision unless he has repeatedly gone over all 
the Books of the Old Testament with this special object in view. 
It implies a critical and exegetical study of the Hebrew orig- 
inal, and the results of such close exegetical study would only 
take their proper shape after years of study. Though the 
writer for the last twelve years has paid especial attention to 
the study of the Hebrew Scriptures, and has studied in course, 
all the books of the Old Testament, and has had the great 
privilege of lecturing on the most important of them during 
the last four years to his theological classes, and has during all 
this time been accumulating material, still when the question 
arose of presenting the Theology of the Old Testament in a 
scientific form, the writer deemed it best to rewrite the work 
of the Master of this branch of Theology, hoping in this way 
to contribute most to a more exact knowlege of the doctrines 
of the Old Testament. 

Since the first appearance of " The Theology of the Old 
Testament" by Gustav Friedrich Oehler in 1873, it has de- 
servedly been regarded as the most important work on this 
subject, and it is a question whether it ever will be superseded. 
The author had especial gifts and qualifications for this branch 
of theology, and his rank as an expositor of the Old Testa- 
ment is very high. For thirty years he lectured on this sub- 
ject, and almost every topic presented in his system has been 
most elaborately treated by him in the first edition of Herzog's 
Real- Encyk lop <z die (1854 — 1868), and of such excellence were 
these articles that they have been retained, with scarcely any 
changes, in the second edition of this work. In his Theology 
of the Old Testament Oehler incorporated the latest results of 
his researches and those who have repeatedly studied his work 
are surprised at his erudition and the exegetical skill that he 
displays. To a large extent his work takes the place of a criti- 
cal commentary. For several years the writer has used this 
work as a text -book in his class-room, and has learned to ap- 
preciate its great merits. But there are serious objections to 
its use as a text-book, especially on account of its fulness of 



treatment, as the work is better adapted for a book of refer- 
ence for the scholar and pastor. 

The attempt, therefore, has been made to reproduce this 
valuable work for use in the class-room, and for private stu- 
dents. It is an abridgement, and yet it is more. It aims at 
condensation, and yet seeks to give all that is of importance in 
Oehler's original work. Those who have had any experience 
in work of this kind know how difficult it is to condense and 
reproduce without omitting what is important. We would call 
especial attention to the scripture references. The plan has 
been, after a careful study of all the passages cited by Oehler, to se- 
lect the most important, and these references are made to conform 
to the English Version. We have made constant use of the ex- 
cellent edition published by Funk and Wagnalls, under the 
editorial supervision of Dr. Day of Yale Divinity school, and 
take this occasion of recommending this edition which is su- 
perior to the Edinburgh edition (save in typography, the type 
being smaller), and in several respects even to be preferred to 
the original second edition of the German. 

As is well-known, in such a large field of research, where 
the task is so great and difficult, there will be differences ol 
opinion as to the interpretation of difficult passages. Even 
our most conservative theologians reach different results. And 
although Oehler represents the most conservative tendency oi 
the Lutheran Theology of Germany, still there are various 
points on which the writer differs with him. In all such cases 
Oehler's views are distinctly stated, but the position of the 
writer is also indicated. But in almost all cases Oehler has 
been allowed to speak for the writer, so that what is here pre- 
sented is the view that the writer himself holds of the truths as 
presented in the Old Testament. 

The analytical index has been prepared so as to be of service 
to students in preparing for examination. 

R. F. W. 



AUGUSTANA THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, 

Ascension Day, June 3, 1886, 
Rock Island, 111. 



CONTENTS. 

Historical Theology. 

Sec. Page. 

1. Definition of the Science, ., . . 1 

2. Sacred History, . . . . . . . 1 

3. History of the People of Israel, .... 2 

4. The Life of Jesus 6 

5. Lives of the Apostles, ...... 7 

6. Biblical Theology of the Old Testament, . . 15 

Introduction. 

1 — 4. Definition and Limits of Old Testament Theology, . . 15 

5 — 8. Fuller statement of the Seientifie Standpoint of Old Testa- 
ment Theology, ...... 17 

9 — 14. History of the Cultivation of Old Testament Theology in the 

Christian Church, ...... 20 

15, 16. Method of Biblical Theology 24 

Part i. Mosaism. 

1. The History of Revelation from the Creation to the 
Occupation of Canaan. 

17—20. The Primeval Age, 25 

21, 22. The Second Age of the World, 28 

23—25. The Time of the Three Patriarchs, . '. . . 29 

26—33. The Time of Moses aud Joshua, . . . • . 33 

2. The Doctrines and Ordinances of Mosaism. 

a) The Doctrine of God and His relation to the World. 

34—48- The Mosaic Idea of God, 40 

49—66. The Relation of God to the World, .... 48 

1) Of Creation and Preservation of the World, . . 48 

2) Of Divine Providence, 50 

3) Of Divine Revelation, 52 

b) The Doctrine of Man. 



XII 

67 — 71. The Nature of Man in its main unchangeable Features, 60 
72—79. The Doctrine of Man in reference to the Contradictory ele- 
ments which entered by Sin into its Development, 65 

1) The Primitive State of Man, . ... 65 

2) Of Sin, 66 

3) Of Death and State after death, 69 
c) The Covenant of God with Israel and the Theocracy. 

80—90. The Nature of the Covenant, 72 

91—156. The Theocracy, .80 

91 — 111. 1) Theocratic Organism, and the Ordinances of Law 

and Justice connected therewith, ... 81 

aa) Theocratic Organization of the People, . . 81 

bb) Theocratic Authority, 86 

cc) Organization of the Family, ... 90 

112—156. 2) The Mosaie Public Worship, .... 97 

aa) The Place of Worship, 97 

bb) The Actions of Mosiae Worship, . . . 104 

1. The Material of the Offerings, . . . .104 

2. The Ritual of Sacrifice, ... 108 

3. Of the Various Kinds of Offerings, . . . 112 
cc) The Sacred Seasons, 126 

1. The Sacred Seasons in general, . . . 126 

2. The Sabbatical Seasons, .... 128 

3. The Three Pilgrimage Feasts, .... 132 

Part ii. Prophetism. 

1. The Development of the Theocracy from the Death of 
Joshua to the Close of the Old Testament Revelation. 

157 -16 S. The Times of the Judges, 135 

164 — 170. Period of the Undivided Kingdom, .... 141 

171—177. The Kingdom of the Ten Tribes, . ... 147 

178—187. The Kingdom of Judah, 153 

188 — 193. History of the Jewish Nation from the Babylonian Cap- 
tivity to the Cessation of Prophecy, . . . 160 

2. The Theology of Prophetism* 

194—200. The Doctrine of the Lord of Hosts and of Angels, . . 164 

201 — 204. Man's Religious and Moral Relation to God, . . 171 

205—216. Of Prophecy, 174 

1) The Prophetic Consciousness, . . . .174 

2) Of Propheey, 180 



XIII 



211- 


-234. 


Of the Kingdom of God, 


184 






1) The Purpose of God's Kingdom, . 


185 






a) The Design, 


185 






b) The Relation of the Present to its Purpose, . 


185 






c) The Judgment, 


186 






2) The Future Redemption, 


189 






a) The Deliverance and Restoration of the Covenant 








People, 


189 






b) The Admission of the Heathen into the Kingdom of 








God, 


193 






c) The Messiah, 


195 






Part hi. Old Testament Wisdom. 




235- 


-239. 


Objective Divine Wisdom, ...... 


200 


240- 


-242. 


Subjective Human Wisdom, 


204 


243, 


244. 


Moral Good, 


205 


245- 


-248. 


The Enigmas of Human Life, ..... 


207 


249, 


250. 


Renunciation of the Solution in the Book of Ecelesiastes, 


211 






Literature of Biblical Theology , 


213 






Index, 


219 



ERRATA. 
The few typographical mistakes are of such a character that they can easily 
be corrected. 



Theological Encyclopedia 

AND 

Methodology. 



II. HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

SECTION I. 

DEFINITION OF THE SCIENCE. 

The result of the application of Exegetical Theology* to 
the Bible lays the foundation of Historical Theology. This 
latter begins with that portion of history of which the Bible is 
the great source (Sacred History), and includes what has been 
developed in the Church in the shape of Church History and 
the History of Doctrine. Consequently it reaches back in its 
beginning into Exegesis and ends by throwing a bridge over 
into Systematic Theology. 

SECTION II. 

SACRED HISTORY. 

The transition from Exegesis to Historical Theology is 
made in the study of Bible History. This like the Bible itself 
is divided into the two departments of the Old and New Test- 
ament History. 

* See the author's Theological Encyclopedia and Methodology. Based on Hagen- 
bach and Krauth. Part I. Introductiort and Exegetical Theology. Philadelphia, 1885. 



2 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

SECTION III. 
HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL. 

Christ comes of the seed of Israel, and as Israel's history 
prepares the way for the history of Christ and his Church, so 
all previous history prepares the way for Israel. In the geneal- 
ogy of Christ, the line is traced till it ends and begins in Adam. 

What has been said of the importance of the Old Testament 
study in general to the Christian theologian, may be repeated 
in particular of Old Testament History*. Unequalled in all the 
books of men, it is surpassed alone by New Testament History. 

Considering the time from Adam to Abraham as biograph- 
ical rather than historical, we may divide the History of the peo- 
ple of Israel into the following periods : 

I. The Patriarchal Period. The time of the oldest revela- 
tion from God next after the few and relatively obscure hints 
given to the first Patriarchs. This era reaches from Abraham 
to Moses (2016 — 1586) b. c. 

II. The Theocratic Period. The establishment of Theo- 
cracy, i. e., of the rule of God as the civil sovereign of the na- 
tion, and the subjugation and the complete possession of the 
Promised Land under the Theocratic leaders from Moses or 
Joshua to Samuel (1586 — 1096) b. c. 

III. The Development Period, in which the Theocracy 
under the law and under the theocratic institutions of the 
prophets, priests and regal estates, came to full maturity, both as 
to its negative and positive sides, — from Samuel to the period 
which begins with Solomon and ends with the exile (1096 — 
606) B. c. 

IV. The Period of Decline, under the influence of foreign 
dominion and foreign usage, the period of transition into a new 
era, the time during the exile and the period immediately sub- 
sequent to it (606 — 400) b. c. 

The sources of the history of the Israelitish people are 
1) The Canonical Books of the Old Testament. 2) The Apoc- 
ryphal Books of the Old Testament, which are here of great 

* See Part I. Sec. XXXVII, p. 67, "On the Relation of the Old Testament to 
the New." 



HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL. 3 

value, especially the first book of Maccabees for the period sub- 
sequent to the exile. 3) Next to these, the books of Josephus 
(37 — 103) a. d. 4) Monumental sources (Egypt, Babylon, 
Assyria, Palestine). 5) Various materials are given in heathen 
writers, e. g., by Herodotus among the Greeks and Tacitus 
among the Romans. 6) Early Christian writers. Of these the 
writings of Eusebius are the most valuable. 

Among the many events in Sacred History, which might be 
selected as convenient epochs, there are six which stand out with a 
prominence peculiar to themselves. These six epochs are eminently 
typical of the very last great epoch, the coming of the Son of Man 
to judge the world. 

This division has been adopted by the writer, suggested by 
earlier chronologists * partly for its convenience and partly for the 
beautiful analogy it presents to the six days of creation. These six, 
are all epochs of divine judgment, of judgment in two aspects, bene- 
ficial to all who ooey, destructive to them who disobey. 

The six judgments which close the six great periods of sacred 
history are: 

1. The expulsion from Eden. 2. The Flood. 3. The destruction 
of Sodom and Gomorrah. 4. The Exodus. The Judgment visited 
upon Pharaoh and his host. 5. The destruction of Jerusalem and 
Solomon's Temple, with the captivity in Babylon. 6. The final 
destruction of Jerusalem and the desolation of the Temple. 

These judgments will be followed by the seventh, the Coming of 
the Son of Man. 

These epochs are mere points in Sacred History. Each is marked 
by a judgment of wrath and mercy. 

Sacred History, therefore may be thus arranged: 

1. The Lord's Dav. Paradise. 

2. Adam's Dav. (4124—2468) b. c. 

3. Noah's Dav. (2468—2016) b. c. 

4. Abraham's Dav. (2016—1586) b. c. 

5. Mosaic Day. (1586—606) b. c. 

a) Judges. 490 years. (1586— 1096) B.C. 
6) Kings. 490 years. (1096—606) b. c. 

6. Prophetic Day. (606 b. c— 70 a. d.). 

7. Day of the Son of Man. (70— ?) a. d. 

This is not the place to discuss the difficult subject of the 
Chronology of the Bible, but the writer adopts that of the Hebrew 
text, and considers the system so learnedly set forth by Brownef 
and so thoroughly tested and substantiated by Mahan,J as the most 

* See especially Palmoni; or, The Numerals of Scripture. A Proof of Inspiration. 
A free inquiry. By Milo Mahan. In Vol. II. of Collected Works. 1875. Also published 
separately. 

t Ordo Sceclorum: a treatise on the Chronology of the Holy Scriptures, etc. By 
Henry Browne. London, 1844. 

t In the work already cited and especially in Mystic Numbers. A Key to Chron- 
ology; a law of Divine Economy; a test of Inspiration. A thorough inquiry. By 
Milo Mahan. In Vol. II. of Collected Works. New York, 1875. 



THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 



satisfactory for 


practical purposes. 


In accordance with this system 


the principal dates of Old Testament History are as follows: 






-O. Kj. 

4124 


Expulsion fr 


oin Eden, 






3137 


Enoch translated, 








3068 


Noah born, 










2588 


The flood announced, 






2468 


The flood, 










204 L 


Call oi 


A brain, 








2016 


Covenant with Abraham, 






1586 


Exodus, 










1546 


Entrance into Canaan, 






1096 


Saul, 












1056 


David 












1016 


SolollK 


)n, 










1006 


Tempi 


e dedicated, 








976 


Rehoboam and Je 


roboam. 




Kingdom 


of Judah. 


B. C< 




Kingdom of Israel. 


1 


Rehoboam, 






976 


1 


Jeroboam, 


2 


Abijah, 






959 






3 


Asa, 






956 
955 


■2 


Nadab, 










954 
931 
930 
930 
919 


3 
4 
5 
6 

7 


Baasha, 

Elah, 

Zimri, 

Omri, 

Ahab, 


4 


Jehoshaphat, 




915 














898 


8 


Ahaziah, 










897 


9 


Jehoram, 


5 


Jehoram, 






893 






6 


Ahaziah, 






885 






7 


Athaliah, 






884 


10 


Jehu, 


8 


Joash, 






878 
856 
841 


11 
12 


Jehoahaz, 
Jehoash, 


9 


Amaziah, 






838 














824 


13 


Jeroboam II, 


10 


Uzziah, 






809 

772 


14 


Interregnum, 
Zachariah, 




;;;; 






771 
771 
760 
758 


15 
16 
17 

18 


Shallum, 
Menahem, 
Pekahiah, 
Pekah, 


11 


Jotham, 






757 






12 


Ahaz, 






741 

729 


19 


Interregnum, 
Hoshea, 


13 


Hezekiah, 






727 
721 




Captivity of Israel, 


14 


Manasseh, 






696 






15 


Amon, 






641 






16 


Josiah, 






639 






17 


Jehoahaz 






608 






18 


Jehoiakim, 






608 
606 




Captivity of Judah, 



THE LIFE OF JESUS. 



19 


Coniah, 




597 






20 


Zedekiah, 


596 












586 


Jerusalem and Temple 












destroyed. 






536 


Decree of Cyrus, 










516 


Temple restored, 










459- 


j Decree of Artaxerxes, 










| Beginning of 70 "Weeks", 








4(0 ' 


End of Old Testament Prophecy, 






312 


Era of the Seleucidse, 










165 


Temple purified by Judas 


Maccabseus, 






151 


Asmonsean dynasty, 










38 


Herod the Great, 










5 


The Incarnation, 










4 


Death of Herod, 













Vulgar Era. 







THE PROPHETS.* 

I. The Pre-Assyrian Period. 

Hosea (Israel) "] 
Joel (Judah) b. o, 

Amos (Israel) y 850—750 
Obadiah (Judah) | 
Jonah (Israel) J 



II. Assyri 


an Period. 


Isaiah, 
Micah, 
Nahum, 


B. 

760- 

758- 


0. 

-690 
-710 

680 


III. Chaldcean Period. 


Zephaniah, 
Jeremiah, 
Habakkuk, 
Ezekiel, 


B, 

639- 

628- 
608- 
594- 


, c. 

-609 

-583 

-590 

-535 


IV. Period 


of the Exile. 


Jeremiah, 

Ezekiel, 

Daniel, 


B. 

628- 
594- 
605- 


0. 

-583 
-535 
-536 


V. Post- Exile Period. 


Haggai, 

Zechariah, 

Malachi, 


B. 

525- 
520- 
433- 


c. 

-520 
-510 
-410 



Judah. 



See O. R. Hertwig's Tabellen, etc. Besorgt von Kleinert. Berlin, 1869. 



6 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

SECTION IV. 

THE LIFE OF JESUS* 

" The life of Jesus," says Ammop, "unites all the interests of 
speculation, of religion, and of history. It presents to us a per- 
son around whom the strife of heaven and earth gathers, a per- 
son whom we cannot give exclusively either to heaven or earth ; 
.... it is the examplar of every man, yet presents itself in rela- 
tions and situations which never have been, nor can ever be given 
to any other man." The image of our Lord in the New Test- 
ament has been compared to a torso, to a mighty statue, but 
incomplete, in the supply of whose missing parts the imagina- 
tions of centuries have been toiling. On this figure, Hagen- 
bach truly says, "the comparison is lacking in one thing, 
inasmuch as a torso wants the grand essential, the counte- 
nance; but the countenance of our Lord is the very thing 
which beams out of the evangelical narrative as something 
truly human, encompassed by the Divine glory. " 

Around the person of our Lord has gathered the great 
struggle of faith and unbelief for all ages, but especially for 
the last century. 

Bunsen says : "The self-consciousness of Jesus of Nazareth 
must stand clear before the eye of the Christian as an actual 
historical fact, which a genuine philosophy is bound to explain. 
Midway and mediating between two worlds, between two devel- 
opments, that of the old world and that of the modern, stands 
the Divine personality of Jesus of Nazareth; not as something 
wrought out by the old world, but as its consummation ; not as 
a mere annunciation of a new world, but as its abiding modeh 
and as the life spring of humanity through the spirit." Again: 
" He was the man, because he was man only. He was neither 
Jew nor Greek, not prince nor priest, not a rich man, nor a 
mighty man, but over against them all — a complete man. 
He lived and died for humanity. But because of this very 
thing, He is called, and was, and is, God's very image and 
God's Son, as none was before Him, and none has been after 
Him." 

* See Manuscript Lectures of Dr. Krautn. 



LIVE^ OF THE APOSTLES. 7 

In antithesis to a lifeless atomistic treatment of the life of 
Jesus, Carl Ritter has beautifully said: "His whole life lies be- 
fore us open and free like an enchanting meadow, over which 
the light streams without a cloud, and through which our steps 
are taken with a hallowed feeling of joy, requiring no tedious 
explanation of some uninvited Cicerone, in which the heart 
swells in higher anticipations and to which the thoughts are 
turned as to a home, soon to be ours, where, whether in sor- 
row or in joy, we would be willing to live and willing to die." 

SECTION V. 

LIVES OF THE APOSTLES AND HISTORY OF THE 
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHURCH.* 

The lives of the Apostles are linked with the life of our 
Lord, as the life of the first branches are to the vine. To 
them was given in some sense, to complete the work of our 
Lord as the great prophet of our race. As the Father had 
sent Him, so He sent them; and here, it is the Lord's own 
testimony that they did greater works than He himself, i. e. y 
He from His throne, through the plentitude of His Spirit 
poured forth in the New Testament fulness, wrought mightier 
things through them in the power of His atoning work which 
He had finished, than He had wrought in His own natural 
presence on earth, while His atoning work still rested on some- 
thing yet to be. They wrought in the power of Christ upon 
the throne of the universe. He traced his way upon the earth 
by the marks of His bleeding feet, and of His bitter tears. 
They followed in the light of His glory, as the ascended Son 
of God, yet they also filled up that which was behind of the 
sufferings of Christ, for it was ordained that He should have 
pain, not alone in his person, but also in His sorrowing disci- 
ples. The Apostles were the earthly angels of the new dis- 
pensation, yet the offscouring of the world. Man never had 
functions as glorious in the eyes of heaven as theirs, and never 
did malignity on earth, or in hell, more concentrate on man 

* See Manuscript Lectures of Dr. Krauth. 



8 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

than on them. " We are made," says St. Paul, " a spectacle 
unto the world, and to angels, and to men." Yet great as was 
their work and terrible as was their suffering through which it 
was wrought, the Apostles themselves were so merged into their 
own work, that of none of them do we know much, and of some 
we know nothing. Among those originally called the most 
prominent are Peter, James, and John. Greatest among them 
all was the one "called out of due time," the Apostle of the 
Gentiles, Paul. Great as a missionary, great in the power of 
appreciating and using fitting co-workers, which is the most 
needed attribute of the leader of men, and great as a thinker 
and writer, he may be called the creator of doctrinal system. 
Paul was distinguished by the majesty and force of his char- 
acter, by the intensely interesting events of his life, by his 
matchless presentation of doctrines, and by his wonderful and 
successful activity. A new period of development began with 
the labors of the Apostle of the Gentiles. He did more than 
any of the others for the extension of Christianity ; and he did 
more than any to open its internal depth. These two great fea- 
tures doubtless were connected, the first largely the effect of 
the second. He was deep in work because he was deep in 
doctrine. He is the developer of doctrine, not in a way of ab- 
stract theory, but from personal experience. He is the first 
fruit of those in whom the grace of God in Christ glorified it- 
self, and the Gospel reveals itself as the power of God. 

SELECT LITERATURE. 

1. INTRODUCTION TO HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

1. Dowling, John G. An Introduetion to the Critical Study of Eccle- 
siastieal History, etc. London, 1838. 

2. Schaff, Philip. History of the Apostolic Church; With a General 
Introduetion to Church History. Pp. 1—134. New York, 1856. 

3. Stanley, A. P. Three Introductory Lectures on the Study of Eccle- 
siastical History. London, 1857. (Also incorporated in his 
History of the Eastern Church. New York, 1870). 

2. TEXT-BOOKS IN SACRED HISTORY. 

1. Blaikie, William G, Bible History, in connection with the General 
History of the World, etc. London, 1859. 



SELECT LITERATURE. 9 

2. Kitto, John. The Bible History of the Holy Land, London, 1867. 

3. Kurtz, J, H. Manual of Saered History, etc Philadelphia, 1869. 

An excellent work. 

4. Maclear, G. T. A Class-Book of Old Testament History. London, 
1866, 

5 A Class-Book of New Testament History. London, 

1867. 

6. Pinnock, W. H. An Analysis of Scripture History, with examina- 
tion questions, intended for readers of Old Testament History, and 
for Divinity students in general. Eighth edition. Cambridge, 
1857. 

7 An Analysis of New Testament History, ete. 

Eleventh edition. Cambridge, 1867. 
Excellent works for private study, 

8. Smith, William. The Old Testament History, ete. New York, 
1875. 

9 The New Testament History, ete, New York, 

1875. 

3. HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL. 

1. Ewald, Heinrich. The History of Israel. Translated from the 
German. 5 vols. London, 1871 — 76. 

A work of genius and learning, but bold in criticism. 

2. Hengstenberg, E, W. A History of the Kingdom of God under the 
Old Testament. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1872. 

3. Koehler, A. Biblische Gesehiehte des Alten Testaments. 2 Bde. 
Erlangen, 1877—1882. 

4. Kurtz, J. H. History of the Old Covenant. 3 vols. Edinburgh, 
1860. 

5. Milman, H. H. The History of the Jews, from the earliest period 
down to modern times, ete. 3 vols. New York, 1866. 

6. Palmer, E. H, A History of the Jewish Nation, ete. London, 1874. 
Reprinted in Boston. 

7. Russell, M. Connection of Saered and Profane History, from death 
of Jonah to the Decline of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Re- 
edited by J. Talboys Wheeler. 2 vols. London, 1865. 

8. Shuckf ord, S. Connection of Sacred and Profane History from the 
Creation of the World to the death of Jonah, ete. Edited by J. 
Talboys Wheeler. 2 vols. London, 1858. 

9. Stanley, A. P. Lectures on the History of the Jewish Chureh. 3 vols. 
New York, 1877. 

4. CONTEMPORARY HISTORY. 

1. Hengstenberg, E. W. Egypt and the Books of Moses. Edinburgh, 
1857. 

2. Kenrick, John. Phoenicia. With maps and illustrations. 
London, 1855. 

3 Ancient Egypt under the Pharaohs. Two vols. 

in one. New York, 1883. 



10 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

4. Rawlinson, George. A Manual of Ancient History, etc. New 
York, 1871. 

5 The Five Great Monarchies of the Eastern World. 

3 vols. New York, 1883. 
6 The Sixth Monarchy, etc. 1 vol. New York, 

1883. 
7 The Seventh Monarchy, etc 1 vol. New York, 

1883. 
8 History of Ancient Egypt. 2 vols. New York, 

1884. 
These standard works, once so expensive, can now be bought 

at very cheap rates. 

9. Schrader, E. Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, 2. Aufl. 

Giessen, 1883. 
10. Smith, Philip. The Ancient History of the East, etc New York, 
1871. 
An excellent manual. 

5. HISTORY OF THE JEWS IN LATER TIMES. 

1. Edersheim, Alfred. History of the Jewish Nation after the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem under Titus. Edinburgh, 1857. 

Edersheim has also written quite extensively on the History 
of the People of Israel. 

2. Gosse, Philip H. The History of the Jews, from the Christian era 
to the dawn of the Reformation. London, 1851, 

3. Graetz, H. Gesehiehte der Juden von den dltesten Zeiten bis auf die 
Gegenwart. 11 vols, Leipsic, 1854 — 70. 

4. Prideaux, Humphrey. An Historical Connection of the Old and New 
Testaments, etc To which is added an account of the Rabbinic 
authorities, by A. M'Caul. Third edition, revised by J. Talboys 
Wheeler. 2 vols. London, 1877. 

5. Raphall, Morris J. Post-Biblical History of the Jews. 2 vols. 
New York. 1866. 

6. HISTORY OF NEW TESTAMENT TIMES. 

1. Delitzsch, Franz. Jewish Artisan Life in the Time of Jesus. New 

York, 1883. 
2 A Day in Capernaum. Philadelphia, 1873. 

3. Hausrath, A. N. Testamentliche Zeitgeschiehte. 4 vols. Heidel- 
berg, 1873—77. Also translated into English. London, 1878. 

4. Schneckenburger, M. Vorlesungen ueber N. T. Zeitgeschiehte, etc 
Frankfort on the Main, 1862. 

5. Schuerer, E. Lehrbueh der N. T. Zeitgesehichte. Leipsic, 1874. 

The best hand-book on the subject. 

7, LIVES OF CHRIST. 

1. Abbott, Lyman. Jesus of Nazareth: His life and teachings, 
etc. New York, 1869. 
Compact and popular. 



SELECT LITERATURE. 11 

2. Andrews, Samuel J. The Life of our Lord upon the Earth, con- 
sidered in its historical, chronological, and geographical rela- 
tions. Fourth Edition. New York, 1867. 

The author pays special attention to chronology. 

3. Edersheim, Alfred. The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah. 2 
vols. Second edition. New York and London, 1884. 

Takes high rank. 

4. Ellicott, C. J. Historical Lectures on the Life of our Lord Jesus Christ, 
etc. Boston, 1874. 

Especially valuable on account of the notes accompanying 
the text. 

5. Farrar, Frederic W. The Life of Christ. 2 vols. New York, 
1875. 

Many editions of this well-known work have been published. 

6. Geikie, Cunningham. The Life and Words of Christ. Two 
volumes in one. New York, 1880. 

A well-known work, published in various editions. 

7. Hanna, William. The Life of Christ. 6 vols. New York, 1870. 

8. Lange, J. P. The Life of the Lord Jesus Christ, etc. New edition. 
4 vols. Philadelphia, 1872. 

9. Neander, Augustus. The Life of Jesus Christ, etc New York. 
1863. 

10. Pressense, E. De. Jesus Christ: His times, life and work. 
Seventh edition. London, 1879. 

11. Weiss, Bernhard. The Life of Christ. 3 vols, Edinburgh, 1884. 

Very valuable for scholars. 

8. HARMONIES OF THE GOSPELS. 

1. Cadman, J as. P. Christ in the Gospels, etc Second edition. 
Chicago, 1885. 

The Kevised Version is used. An excellent work. 

2. Fuller, J. M. The Four Gospels, arranged in the form of a Harmony, 
etc London, 1880. 

3. Gardiner, Frederic. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek, 
according to the text of Tischendorf , etc. Andover, 1880. 

To be had also in English. 

4. Greswell, Edward. Dissertations upon the Principles and Arrange- 
ment of a Harmony of the Gospels. Second edition. 4 vols. Ox- 
ford, 1837. 

5. Mimpriss, Robert. The Gospel Treasury and Expository Harmony of 
the Four Evangelists, etc. New York, 1870. 

Also to be had in larger type 

6. Kobinson, Edward. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek. 
Revised edition. With additional notes by M. B. Riddle. 
Boston, 1885. 

This edition gives the text of Tischendorf, and the various 
readings accepted by Tregelles, Westcott and Hort, and in the 
Revised English Version of 1881. 

7. Strong, James. Harmony of the Gospels in Greek, etc New York, 
1859. 



12 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

8. Stroud, William. A new Greek Harmony of the Four Gospels, etc, 
London, 1853. 

9. Teschendorf, Constantine. Synopsis Evangelica. Fourth edition. 
Leipsic, 1878. 

9. CHRONOLOGICAL. 

1. Browne, Henry. Ordo Sceelorum. London, 1844. 

2. Caspari, Ch. Ed, A Chronological and Geographical Introduction to 
the Life of Christ, etc. Edinburgh, 1876. 

3. Lewin, Thomas. Fasti Saeri; or, A Key to the Chronology of the 
New Testament. London, 1865. 

4. Wieseler, Karl. A Chronological Synopsis of the Four Gospels. 
Second edition. London, 1877. 

10. APOLOGETICAL. 

1. Bushnell, Horace. Nature and the Supernatural. New York, 1877. 

Especially the famous tenth chapter of this well-known 
work, "The Character of Jesus forbids his possible classification 
with men". 

2. Ebrard, John H. A. The Gospel History: A critical investigation. 
etc. Edinburgh, 1863. 

3. Schaff, Philip, The Person of Christ; the Perfection of his 
Humanity viewed as a proof of his Divinity. With a collection 
of impartial testimonies. 12th edition, revised. New York, 
1882, 

An excellent work, translated into various languages. 

4. Steinmeyer, F. L. The Miracles of our Lord in relation to Modern 
Criticism, Edinburgh, 1875. 

5 The History of the Passion and Resurrection 

of our Lord considered in the light of Modern Criticism, 
Edinburgh, 1879. 

Various other works in this department by this same author 
have appeared in German, 

6. Westcott, Brooke Foss. An Introduction to the Study of the Gospels. 
Fifth edition. London, 1876. 

An excellent work. An earlier edition has been reprinted 
here. 

7. Young, John. The Christ of History, etc. New York, 1857. 

11. LIVES OF THE APOSTLES. 

1. Bruce, Alexander B. The Training of the Twelve, etc. Second 
edition. Edinburgh, 1877. 

2. Conybeare, W. J., and Howson, J. S. The Life and Epistles of St. 
Paul. 2 vols. New York, 1872. 

Various editions of this work, abridged and unabridged, have 
appeared. 

3. Farrar, F. W. The Life and Work of St. Paul. 2 vols. New York, 
1881. 



SELECT LITERATURE. 13 

4. Farrar, F. W. The Early Days of Christianity. 2 vols. New 
York, 1883. 

In this last work the author attempts to set forth, in their 
distinctive characteristics, the work and the writings of St. 
Peter, St. James, St. Jucle, St. John, and the author of the 
Epistle to the Hebrews( ?). 

5. Green, Samuel G. The Apostle Peter: His Life and Letters. London. 
No date. 

6. Lewin, Thomas. The Life and Epistles of St. Paul. Fourth edi- 
tion, revised. 2 vols. London, 1878. 

7. Macdonald, James M The Life and Writings of St. John. Edited, 
with an Introduction by J. S. Howson. New York, 1877. 

8. Neander, Augustus. History of the Planting and Training of the 
Christian Chureh by the Apostles. Revised by E. G. Kobinson. New 
York, 1865. 

An excellent work, which ought to be in every clergyman's 
library. 

9. Paley, William. Horae Paulinae, etc.- New York, 1851. 

Various editions. Still valuable for apologetical purposes. 

10. Pressense, E. De. The Early Years of Christianity. The Apostolic 
Era, New York, 1870. 

11. Schaff, Philip. History of the Apostolic Chureh, etc. New York, 
1856. 

12 History of the Christian Chureh. Apostolic Christ- 
ianity. Vol. I. New York, 1882. 

12. BIBLICAL CHARACTERS. 

1. Adams, Nehemiah. The Friends of Christ, in the New Testament. 
Boston, 1864. 

2. Adams, W.H. D. St. Paul; his Life; his Work, and his Writings. 
London, 1875. 

3. Bourdillon, Francis. Lesser Lights; or, Some of the Minor 
Characters of Scripture traced, etc. London. No date. 

4. Bruce, John. The Life of Gideon, illustrated and applied. Edin- 
burgh, 1870. 

5. Candlish, Robert S. Scripture Characters. London, 1866. 

6. Cave, William. Antiquitates Apostoliea?; or, The Lives, Acts, and 
Martyrdoms of the Holy Apostles, etc. With an introductory 
essay by Henry Stebbing. 2 vols, London, 1834. 

7. Dykes, J. Oswald. Abraham, the Friend of God. New York, 1877. 

8. Edersheim, Alfred. The History of Elisha the Prophet, etc London, 
1868. 

9. Geikie, Cunningham. Old Testament Portraits. London, 1878. 

10 . , . Hours with the Bible. Six volumes. New 

York, 1884. 

11. Hunter, Henry. Sacred Biography, etc. New York, 1844. 

12. Krummacher, F. W. David, the King of Israel. New York, 1868. 
13 Elijah the Tishbite. New York, 1852. 



14 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

14. Krummacher, F. W. Elisha. London, 1870. 

15. Landels, William. The Representative Women of Scripture. London. 
No date. 

16. Macduff, J. R. The Footsteps of St. Paul. New York, 1870. 
17 The Footsteps of St. Peter. New York, 1877. 

18 The Prophet of Fire; or, The Life and Times of 

Elijah, etc. New York, 1864. 
19 The Healing Waters of Israel; or, The Story of 

Naaman the Syrian. New York, 1874. 

20. Martin, Hugh. The Prophet Jonah, etc. London, 1866. 

21. Randall, J. VL Nehemiah the Tirshatha; his Times and Lessons- 
London, 1874. 

22. Reynolds, H. R. John the Baptist. London, 1874. 

23. Robinson, Thomas. Scripture Characters, etc. London, 1860. 

24. Seiss, Joseph A. Voices from Babylon; or, The Records of Daniel 
the Prophet. Philadelphia, 1879. 

25. Smith, Thornley. The Prophet of Sorrow; or, the Life and Times 
of Jeremiah. London, 1875. 

26. Stanley, Arthur P. Scripture Portraits and other Miscellanies. 
London, 1867. 

27. Stowell, Hugh. A Model for Men of Business; or, Lectures on the 
Character of Nehemiah. London, 1872. 

28. Taylor, William M. David, King of Israel. New York, 1875. 
29 Elijah the Prophet. New York, 1876. 

30 Moses the Lawgiver. New York, 1879. 

31 Paul the Missionary. New York, 1880. 

32 Peter the Apostle. New York, 1878. 

33 Daniel the Beloved. New York, 1878. 

34. Tyng, Stephen H. The Rich Kinsman; or, The History of Ruth. 

New York, 1855. 
35 The Captive Orphan; or, Esther, the Queen of 

Persia. New York, 1860. 
36. Wilberforce, Samuel. Heroes of Hebrew History. New York, 

1871. 



SECTION VI. 

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. * 
§ I — 16. INTRODUCTION. 

§ i — 4. Definition and Limits of Old Testament Theology. 
§ 1. Summary of the Introduction. 
The Introduction has for its aim 

1. To define the Theology of the Old Testament, and its 
relation to the cognate branches of Biblical Science ; 

2. To present the conception of the Old Testament reli- 
gion presupposed in our exhibition of the subject, together 
with the scientific standpoint of Old Testament Theology 
thereby given ; 

3. To present a brief history of this branch of theology ; 

4. To discuss the method of Old Testament Theology, 
and present its divisions. 

§ 2. Definition of Old Testament Theology. 

Biblical Theology of the Old Testament has for its task the 
historical exhibition of the religion contained in the canonical 
books of the Old Testament, according to its progressive 
development and the variety of the forms in which it appears. 
It cannot, therefore, limit itself to the directly didactic matter 
in the Old Testament, but must also embrace the chief features 
of the history of the divine kingdom in the Old Testament. 
It has to handle as such what is only in germ, and to show 
how the Old Testament, in the narrowness and unfinished 

* Taking all things into consideration, the best work in this department is the 
well-known treatise of Gustav Friedrich Oehler, TJieologie des Altera Testamentes (2 
Bde. Tuebingen, 1873, 1874. Second edition, revised by Theodore Oehler, 1882). 
An English translation of the first edition appeared in Edinburgh in two volumes, 
(1874, 1875), and an American Edition, revised by George E. Day, incorporating 
the additions of the second German edition, was published in 1883 (Funk and 
Wagnails, New York). As the Science of Biblical Theology is one of the most im- 
portant of the recent branches of theology, we herewith present an abridgement of 
this valuable work. 



16 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

state which characterizes in many parts its doctrinal contents, 
points from itself to something higher, 

§ 3. Relation of Old Testament Theology to other Old Testament branches. 

1. The study of what is called Introduction to the Old 
Testament precedes the study of Old Testament Theology, but 
the two stand to each other in a relation of mutual dependence. 
Not only must the general view which we have of the gradual 
progress of the Old Testament revelation influence our deter- 
mination of the position which is due to any one book in the 
whole of the Old Testament, but the criticism of the Old 
Testament must pay regard to the course of development of 
the individual doctrines of the Old Testament For example, 
how is a genetic exhibition of the Old Testament doctrine of 
the nature and attributes of God, of angelology, of the doctrine 
of the state of man after death, etc., possible, on the presuppo- 
sition that the Peutateuch is a comparatively recent produc- 
tion? 

2. Old Testament Theology has a part of its contents in 
common with Biblical Archeology, which latter treats of the 
whole natural and social condition of the people of Israel. 
The discussion of all purely technical questions, however, 
must be left to Archaeology, and even in those topics which 
are common, there must be a treatment differing not merely 
in fulness, but in some measure also in form. 

3. There is a close relation between Old Testament Theology 
and Israelitish History, and yet the two branches are entirely 
distinct. Old Testament Theology is bound to reproduce 
faithfully, and without admixture of modern ways of looking 
at history, the view which the holy Scriptures themselves give 
of the purpose of salvation which is carried out in Israel. The 
History of Israel, on the other hand, has not only to present 
all sides of the historical development of the people of Israel, 
but to sift and vindicate, by historico- critical research, the real 
historical facts which the Theology of the Old Testament 
reproduces as the contents of faith. 

As Old Testament Theology must report what men in the 
Old Testament believed, in what faith they lived and died, as 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 17 

it has to exhibit the history of revelation and to reproduce the 
view which Holy Scripture itself has, we have nothing to do 
with ethnological and geographical research, and with attempts 
of harmonizing the Old Testament history of creation and 
other things of this kind with the propositions of the newer 
physical sciences. 

§ 4. Sources of Old Testament Theology. 

These sources must be limited to the books of the Old 
Testament Canon as received by the scribes in Palestine, and 
acknowledged by the Protestant Church, thus excluding the 
Old Testament Apocrypha. That the Canon of the Protestant 
Church is that of the Judaism of Palestine, as established in 
the last century before Christ, and then re-sanctioned after 
temporary hesitation at the Sanhedrim in Jamnia about A. D. 
90, is not disputed. According to the declarations of Christ 
in Luke 24: 44; Matt, n: 13, etc., and the whole Apostolic 
doctrine, there can remain no doubt as to where the Old 
and New Testaments are connected, since even the . beginning 
of the New Testament history of revelation attaches itself 
directly to the close of Old Testament prophecy in Malachi 
(Matt. 11 : 13, 14). 

§ 5 — 8. Fuller statement of the scientific Standpoint of Old 
Testament Theology, 

§ 5. Old Testament Theology considered from a Christian theological 
standpoint. 

The view we have of the Theology of the Old Testament 
is already expressed in the name we give to this branch of 
theology, for we will not treat simply of the Jewish religion, 
but of the divine revelation of the Old Testament, which on 
the one hand is fundamentally different from all heathen 
religions, and on the other forms the preliminary stage to the 
revelation of the New Testament, which is with it comprehended 
in one divine economy of salvation. The entire Old Testament 
remains a sealed book, if we fail to see that the subduing of 
the natural character of the people is the whole aim of the 
divine tuition. 



18 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

§ 6. The Biblieal Idea of Revelation. General and Special Revelation. 

The Biblical idea of Revelation has its root in the idea of 
Creation. The production of different classes of beings ad- 
vances teleologically, and reaches its goal only when God has 
created man in His own image. In this progression the 
foundation of revelation is laid. For revelation is, in general, 
God's witness and communication of Himself to the world for 
the realization of the end of Creation, and for the re-establish- 
ment of the full communion of man with God. God testifies, 
partly in nature and the historical guidance of mankind, and 
partly in each one's conscience, of His power, goodness, and 
justice, and thus draws man to seek God (Isa. 40: 21 — 26; 
Jer. 10: 1 — 25; Ps. 19: 1 — 6; 94: 8 — 10). 

The original communion of man with God destroyed by 
sin, is not recovered by means of this general revelation. The 
living God remains to the natural man, in all his searchings, a 
hidden God (Isa. 45: 15; Jer. 23: 18; John 1: 18). It is 
only by God's stooping to man in personal testimony to Him- 
self, and by the objective presentation of Himself, that a vital 
communion is actually established between God and man. 
This is the special revelation, which first appears in the form 
of a covenant between God and a chosen race, and the found- 
ing of a Kingdom of God among the latter culminates in the 
manifestation of God in the flesh, advances from this point to 
the gathering of a people of God in all nations, and is com- 
pleted in the making of a new heaven and a new earth (Isa. 
65: 17; 66: 22 ; Rev. 21 : 1, 2), where God shall be all in all 
(1 Cor. 15 : 28). The relation between general and special 
revelation is such, that the former is the continual basis of the 
latter, the latter the aim and completion of the former. 

§ 7. Historical character and general process of Revelation. Its 
supernatural character. 

The special revelation of God does not at a bound enter 
the world all finished and complete, but as it enters the sphere 
of human life, it observes the laws of historical development 
which are grounded in the general divine system of the world. 
And because revelation aims at the restoration of full com- 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 19 

munion between God and man, it is directed to the whole of 
man's life, and not exclusively or mainly to man's faculties of 
knowledge. Biblical revelation, as here defined, is distinguished 
from the view of the older Protestant Theology in two respets : 
i) In the older Protestant Theology revelation was essentially, 
and almost exclusively, regarded a? doctrine. But Revelation 
cannot possibly confine itself to the cognitive side of man. 
Biblical Theology must be a theology of divine facts. 2) The 
Older Theology failed to recognize the general development 
which revelation passes through in Scripture itself. The Bible 
was supposed to attest equally, in the Old and New Testa- 
ments, the truths which the Church has accepted as doctrines. 
Revelation makes itself known as differing from the natural 
revelations of the human mind, not only by the continuity and 
the organic connection of the facts which constitute the history 
of salvation, but also in its special character (miracle), which 
points distinctly to a divine causality. 

§ 8. The Old and New Testaments in their relation to Heathenism and 
to each other. 

Revelation falls into two principal divisions, the Old and 
the New Testament, which stand to each other in the relation 
of preparation and fulfilment, and are thus, as a connected 
dispensation of salvation, distinguished from ail other religions 
(Eph. 2 : 12). But the unity of the Old and New Testament 
must not be understood as identity. The Old Testament itself 
acknowledges that the manifestation of God's Kingdom at 
that time was imperfect and temporary, and, indeed, at the 
very time in which the old form of the theocracy was over- 
thrown, it predicted the new eternal covenant which God 
would make with his people (Jer. 31 : 31 — 34). Still more 
distinctly does the New Testament emphasize the difference 
from the Old which subsists within the unity of the two 
Testaments. The eternal counsel of salvation, although an- 
nounced by the prophets, is nevertheless not completely re- 
vealed till after its actual realization (Rom. 16 : 25, 26 ; 1 Pet. 
1: 10 — 12; Eph. 1:9, 10; 3: 5). The tuition of the law 
reached its goal in the grace and truth of Christ (John 1 : 17 ; 



20 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Rom. 10: 4; Gal. 3: 24, 25). In the saving benefits of the 
new covenant, the shadow of the old dispensation passes into 
reality (Col. 2: 17; Heb. 10: 1 — 4); therefore the greatest 
man in the old covenant is less than the least in the kingdom 
of Christ (Matt. 11 : 11). 

§ 9 — 14. History of the Cultivation of Old Testament 
Theology in the Christian Church. 

§ 9. Theologieal view of the Old Testament in the Early Church and 
Middle Ages. 

Old Testament Theology, as an independent branch of 
study, is, like Biblical Theology in general, a modern science. 
During the whole development of Church doctrine down to 
the middle of the present century, no distinct line was drawn 
between the essential contents of revelation as they are laid 
down in the Scriptures and the doctrinal formulas elaborated 
from them ; and still less were the successive stages of reve- 
lation and types of doctrine which are presented in Scripture 
recognized. The proposition, "the New Testament lies hidden 
in the Old, the Old Testament lies open in the New " (Novum 
Testamentum in Vetere latet, Vetus Testameyitum in Novo fiatet), 
which is in itself correct, was so perverted as to be made to 
mean that the whole of Christian theology, veiled indeed, but 
already fully formed, could be shown to exist in the Old Test- 
ament. 

We may regard the three books {Lib. XV — XVII) in 
Augustine's great work De Civitate Dei, as in a certain sense 
the first treatment of the Theology of the Old Testament, if 
we except the treatment of the Old Testament as found in the 
New Testament, especially in the Epistles to the Romans, Ga- 
latians, and Hebrews. The study of the Old Testament in the 
Ancient Church reaches its close with Gregory the Great. The 
cultivation of Biblical Theology as an historical science was 
not possible under the influence of the theology of the Middle 
Ages. True, much detached matter valuable for the Old Tes- 
tament was brought to light in the Middle Ages, and especially 
on the Song of Solomon, in which the Mysticism of the Mid- 
dle Ages lives and moves, as Bernard of Clairvaux's lecture* 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 21 

on Canticles show, — but this is not anything belonging to Bibli- 
cal Theology. 

§ 10. Theological view of the Old Testament in the Age of the Reform- 
ation. 

The Reformation principle of the suoreme authority of 
Scripture drew the attention of theologians to the Old Testa- 
ment as well as to the New. To Johann Reuchlin (d. 1522), 
the uncle of Melanchton, must be given the credit not simply 
of opening a path for the study of Hebrew in Germany, but 
also for so firmly maintaining that it is the duty of the expo- 
sitor of Scripture to go back to the original text expounded 
according to its literal sense, and to refuse to be dependent on 
the Vulgate and the traditional expositions of the Church 
which are connected with it. 

The recognition of the difference between the Law and the 
Gospel 'derived from Paul's Epistles was the first thing that gave 
the Reformers a key to the theological meaning of the Old 
Testament. They also correctly recognized, that even in the 
Old Testament a revelation of God's gracious will in the pro- 
mise of salvation goes side by side with the revelation of the 
demands of the divine will in the law. Of all that is connected 
with this practical sphere in the Old Testament, Luther espe- 
cially shows a profound understanding, springing from a lively 
personal experience. In the view which the Reformers (and 
especially Melanchthon) were fond of developing, that the 
Church began in Paradise and continues throughout all time, 
the whole emphasis is laid on the doctrinal unity of revelation, 
existing under all change of outward forms. The theological 
principle of exposition by the analogy of faith, that Scripture 
should be explained by Scripture, is a principle in itself per- 
fectly correct, and to have stated it, is one of the greatest merits 
of Protestant theology, but the Reformers did not properly 
apply it ; the unity of the Old and New Testament was con- 
ceived of not as produced by a gradually advancing process 
of development, but as a harmony of doctrine. 



22 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

§ 11. Theological conception of the Old Testament in the Older Protes- 
tant Theology. 

The treatment of the Old Testament in the older Protestant 
Theology was determined by the principles just stated. The 
contents of the Scriptures were set forth with strict regard to 
the systematic doctrines of the Church, and without respect to 
the historical manifoldness of the Scriptures themselves. The 
Old Testament was used in all its parts, just like the New Tes- 
tament, for proofs of doctrine. In opposition to the Romish 
theologians, especially Bellarmine, it was taught on the side of 
Protestants, that in respect to the fundamental doctrines, the 
Old Testament was in no way incomplete ; and that these were 
only repeated more distincly in the New Testament. 

§ 12. Theological treatment af the Old Testament from 1700 to 1800. 

In the Lutheran Church, Collegia Biblica, or topical lectures 
became common from the end of the seventeenth century on- 
ward. These lectures, which contained exegetico- dogmatical 
discussions of the most important proof-texts of the doctrines 
of the Church, gave some impulse to the study of Biblical as 
distinguished from Doctrinal Theology, but cannot be regarded 
as of much consequence. In this connection must be men- 
tioned the influence of Spener (1635 — 1705) and of Bengel 
(1687 — 1751). The latter insisted on an organic and historical 
conception of biblical revelation with strict regard to the dif- 
ference of its stages. 

§ 13. Rise of a Biblical Theology distinct from Dogmatic. Treatment of 
the Old Testament by Rationalism. 

John Philip Gabler in his academic oration, De Justo dis- 
crimine theologice biblica et dogmatics, 1787, is regarded as the 
first who distinctly spoke of Biblical Theology as an historical 
science. George Lorenz Bauer (1755 — 1806) may be viewed 
as a leading representative of the rationalistic treatment of the 
Old Testament at this period. The hints respecting a treat- 
ment of the Old Testament as an organic history, which 
had been offered by Herder (1744— 1803), were taken up by 
De Wette f 1780— 1849) with discriminating appreciation. 
Ewald (1803—75) in his History of the People of Israel (5 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 23 

vols. London, 1871 — 76), and in his Antiquities of Israel (1 
vol. Boston, 1876), has interwoven with his narrative a full ac- 
count of the growth of the Old Testament religion, but his 
vague notion of revelation does not raise him essentially above 
the rationalistic method which he despises. Various attempts 
have also been made to throw light on the traditions of Gene- 
sis and the institutions of Moses from the comparative history 
of religion. 

§ 14. Theologieal view of the Old Testament in the most recent literature. 

The first to exert a decisive influence on the theological 
treatment of the Old Testament was Hengstenberg (d. 1869), 
mainly by his Christology of the Old Testament (second edi- 
tion, 1854 — 57; English translation in 4 vols. Edinburgh, 
1854 — 58.). The position which Hengstenberg first took in 
treating the Old Testament, and which he never except part- 
ially relinquished is essentially that of the old Protestant theol- 
ogy ; for while not accepting all the tenets of the latter, he yet 
very distinctly aimed at finding all the fundamental New Tes- 
tament doctrines in the Old Testament, not in a process of 
growth, but ready made. Hengstenberg understands the unity 
of the two Testaments to mean, that the New Testament doc- 
trine is found in the Old Testament as a complete finished 
prophecy, though perhaps less prominent, while Oehler on the 
other hand maintains that the true meaning is rather that the 
New Testament is growing in the Old, and therefore is in the 
Old only in the sense in which the higher developments of 
every organism are contained in germ and type in its lower 
stages. Oehler, although he accords to Hengstenberg the credit 
of having been the first to revive in Germany a strong relig- 
ous and theological interest in the Old Testament, still accuses 
him of uniting a spiritualizing tendency in his explanation of 
the prophecies, which fails to do full justice to the historical 
facts. Valuable contributions to the theology of the Old Tes- 
tament are found in Hofmann's Schriftbeweis (Second edition, 
2 vols., 1857 — 60.), Kurtz's History of the Old Covenant 
(Translated into English. 3 vols., Edinburgh, i860), Auberlen's 
Divine Revelation (Translated into English, 1 vol., Edinburgh, 



24 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

1867), and Delitzsch's System of Biblical Psychology (English 
edition, Edinburgh, 1869). Especially important also is the 
work of Hermann Schultz \Alttestame?itliche Theologie. Sec- 
ond edition, 1878). 

§ 15, 16. Method of Biblical Theology. 

§ 15. Characteristics of the Historieo- Genetic method. 

As a historical science, Biblical Theology rests on the re- 
sults of grammatico- historical exegesis, the business of which 
is to reproduce the contents of the Biblical books according to 
the rules of language, with due regard to the historical circum- 
stances under which the books originated, and the individual 
relations of sacred writers. Biblical Theology, however, must 
view the Old Testament in the light of the completed revela- 
tion of God in Christ for which it formed the preparation, — 
must show how God's saving purpose, fulfilled in Christ, moved 
through the preliminary stages of this history of revelation. 
Theological exegesis, in the right sense of the word, is not af- 
fected by the fact that Stier and other writers have brought 
theological interpretation into bad repute, by their habit of 
finding a second, third, and fourth subordinate and secondary 
sense in the Old Testament besides the historico-grammatical 
sense. 

§ 16. Divisions of Old Testament Theologg. 

The proper divisions are given by the following considera- 
tions : The basis of the Old Testament religion is the Covenant 
with the chosen people, into which God entered for the accom- 
plishment of his saving purpose. This covenant, for which the 
way is prepared in the first two ages of the world, is carried 
out in two stages: 1) The patriarchal covenant of promise; 
and 2) The Mosaic covenant of the law, on the basis of which 
the theocracy is founded. This whole sphere may be summed 
up in the name Mosaism. 

The second part of Old Testament Theology, which we will 
briefly call Prophetism, deals with those elements in the history 
of the people of Israel from their entrance into the Promised 
Land which are important for the development of God's King- 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 25 

dom, considering these as they appear in the light of prophecy 
and also discusses the theology of prophecy itself. 

The third division embraces Old Testament Wisdom, which 
equally with prophecy has its root in the law, but develops it- 
self independently of prophecy. 

The division of the Old Testament Canon into Lazv, Pro- 
phets and Hagiographa, though not entirely agreeing with this 
division, points at least toward it. 

PART I. MOSAISM (§ 17 — 156). 

§ 17 — 33. First section. The History of Revelation from 
the Creation to the Occupation of Canaan. 

% 17. Division of this History. 

The Pentateuch plainly distinguishes four periods in the 
history of revelation : 

1. The Primeval Age, with ten patriarchs, closing with the 
deluge. 

2. The second age of the world, beginning with the world- 
covenant in Noah's time, with ten generations. 

3. The time of the three great patriarchs, beginning with 
the covenant of promise made with Abraham, and ending with 
the sojourn of the chosen people in Egypt. 

4. The time of Moses and Joshua, including the giving of 
the covenant of the law, and the establishment of the theocracy, 
with its regulations. 

I. The Primeval Age (§ 18 — 20). 

§ 18. The Aceount of the Creation. 

On the threshold of the revelation of God to man, we have 
an account of creation free from mythological additions, and 
the Bible narrative, by its simplicity, its chaste, positive histo- 
rical character, is in contrast with the fanciful, allegorical, in- 
tricate cosmogonies of all heathen religions.* 

Since God by His Word calls all things into being, He is 
placed above the beginning of all time as the eternal and abso- 
lutely independent One ; since He animates the universe by 

* A comparison of the early history of the Bible with the cuneiform inscriptions 
is extremely interesting, both on account of their remarkable resemblance and their 
characteristic difference. 



26 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

His Spirit, all dualistic separation of God and the world is ex- 
cluded.* 

The production of beings advances continually toward 
higher organisms, and we cannot fail to observe a parallel 
between the first three and the last three days' work. Still 
the divine creative power is not satisfied till it reaches its 
ultimate end in the creation of man. 

The paragraph Gen. 2 : 4 ff. forms the introduction to the 
history of man ; which paragraph is by no means a second rec- 
ord of creation, but shows, in supplementing the first chapter, 
that the earth was prepared for a habitation for man — a sphere 
for his activity, and a place for the revelation of God to man. 

§ 19. The Origin of Evil. 

The world as a divine creation is good, (Gen. 1 : 31); every 
development of life in it is a divine blessing, (Gen. 1 : 22, 28) ; 
there is no room here for a principle which, in its original na- 
ture, is wicked and inimical to God. Man is called to be a free 
being; therefore a command is given to him for self-decision 
(Gen. 2: 16), in order that he may pass from the condition of 
innocence to that of free obedience. Man falls under the 
temptation addressed to him from without.f Through sin the 
bond of child-like communion with God is broken; and now 
man is in a sense independent, like God (Gen. 3: 22); but fear 
resting in the feeling of guilt, dominates from this time forward 
his position toward God (Gen. 3: 8 — 10). The life in Paradise 
with its peace is forfeited, and man sinks henceforth under the 
service of perishable things and of death (Gen. 3: 17 — 24). 

* The naturalist Cuvier says concerning the first words of Genesis: A suhlimer 
passage than this from the first word to the last never can or will come from a 
human pen, "In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth". On this 
verse Murphy in his Commentary on Genesis says: This simple sentence denies 
atheism; for it assumes the being of God. It denies polytheism, and, among its 
various forms, the doctrines of two eternal principles the one good and the other 
evil,— for it confesses the one Eternal Creator. It denies materialism, for it asserts 
the creation of matter. It denies pantheism, for it assumes the existence of God 
before all things, and apart from them. It denies fatalism, for it iuvolves the free- 
dom of the Eternal Beiug. 

t Some maintain that the fall of the spirit-world took place before the begin- 
ning of the six days' creation, placing it between verses 1 and 2, of the first chapter 
of Genesis, and such a view cannot be confuted, nor, on the other hand, can it be 
proved. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 27 

Nevertheless conscience,which testifies of guilt, shows also man's 
capability of being redeemed ; and side by side with the curse 
a divine word points forward to a victorious end of the conflict 
(Gen. 3 : 15). The seed of the serpent, which by cunning over- 
came the woman, shall be vanquished in open combat by the 
seed of the woman. Oehler maintains, however, that the older 
theology erred when it sought to find here (in Gen. 3: 15) the 
Messiah, the great destroyer of the serpent, directly promised, 
although he is willing to grant that it did not err in the general 
conception of the thought in the passage. 

§ 20. The First Offering. Cainites and Sethites. Tradition of the flood. 

The Jirst offering (Gen. 4) is not to be regarded as a proper 
sin-offering, but rather an offering of supplication as well as ol 
gratitude, or, in a wider sense of the word we may designate it 
a propitiatory offering. The difference in the nature of the of- 
ferings was due to the difference of the employments of the two 
brothers ; so that the reason that Abel's offering pleased God, 
was not that it was a bloody sacrifice. The reason can only be 
found in the different states of heart of the two offerers. This 
is indicated in Gen. 4: 3, where it is evident that Abel made 
choice of the best to express his gratitude, while Cain offers his 
gift of the fruit of the ground without selection. 

At the very opening of the Bible, therefore, emphasis is laid 
upon the pious disposition of the one making the sacrifice, as 
the indispensable condition of its being acceptable to God 
(compare Heb. 11: 4). 

While among the descendants of Cain, the life of sin rises 
to insolent defiance (Gen. 4 : 23, 24), in Seth, who takes the 
place of the murdered Abel, is propagated the race of patri- 
archs who seek the living God (Gen. 4 : 26). 

After the wickedness of man had reached its height by the 
intermarriage of the sons of God (Sethites) with the daughters 
of men (Cainites) (Gen. 6: 1, 2), and the time granted for re- 
pentance had passed without result, the judgment of extermi- 
nation was executed in the Flood, from which Noah as the 
righteous one (Gen. 6 : 9) was saved, along with his family.* 

* The tradition of the flood is found in several religions of antiquity; but in 
these traditions each religion evidently expresses a distinct idea of its own. 



Zo THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPCEDIA. 

It is the first judgment on the world executed by the holy- 
God, who, according to Gen. 6 : 3, will no longer permit His 
spirit to be profaned by man's sin. 

II. The Second Age of the World (§ 21, 22). 

§ 21. Covenant with the World. Noah 's Saying. Division of Mankind. 

The second age of the world begins with the new form 
taken by revelation, in presenting itself as God's covenant 
with man, and, in the first instance, as a covenant with the 
world, in which God gives to creation a pledge of its preser- 
vation (Gen. 9: 8 — 17). 

Sacrifice precedes the institution of the covenant (Gen. 8 : 
20), which offering is mainly thanksgiving for the deliverance 
experienced, while at the same time man thereby approaches 
God, seeking grace for the future, after having seen the severity 
of God's penal justice. 

The words of Noah in Gen. 9 : 25 — 27 are of the greatest 
importance for the conception of the general history of man- 
kind as given in the Old Testament, for here is indicated the 
type for the development of the human race. The race ofShem, 
to whom Jehovah is God, is chosen as the bearer of divine re- 
velation ; on Japheth the blessing is conferred through Shem ; 
on Ham, and mainly on Canaan, the curse of slavery is to 
press. 

The establishment of that world-kingdom which is at en- 
mity to God, proceeds from the Hamites (Gen. 10: 8 — 10), 
whose first seat seems to have been Babel. Here begins the 
distinction between the Kingdom of God and the kingdom of 
the world which runs through the whole Bible. 

The register of nations (Gen. 10: 1 — 32) is intended to 
keep in memory the original brotherhood of all the nations of 
the earth (compare Acts 17 : 26), which are again to be united 
in time to come, by one blessing of God (compare Gen. 12 : 3 ; 
18: 18, etc.) 

The importance of this " register of the nations " can scar- 
cely be overestimated. The vast increase of human knowledge 
in recent times has proved the truth of its statements. It con- 
cerns peoples and not individuals, and stands at the end of 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 29 

grand traditional records of the mighty past, giving us a pic- 
ture of the world at a time when nations and kingdoms had 
become settled and their boundaries fixed. The document, 
however, must be prior to the time of the destruction of Sodom 
and Gomorrah (Gen. 10: 19). The table works backwards, 
and not forwards. Taking the nations at some particular time, 
it groups them together, and classifies them according to the 
line to which they belonged. 

§ 22. The Foundation of a People of God. 

In order to give an historical basis to the work of salvation, 
a people is to be chosen as the bearer of revelation. When 
God assigned to the nations of the earth the territory where 
they were to develop themselves, He had in view the place 
which his chosen people should afterward possess in order to 
fulfil their historical calling (Deut. 32: 8). 

In connection, probably, with the mighty moving of the 
nations at this early period, the Terahites leave the ancestral 
dwelling-place of the Chaldeans in Northern Assyria and 
wander first to Haran in Northern Mesopotamia (Gen. n: 31). 
Here, where idolatry, designated as the worship of Teraphim, 
begins to break out even in this family (Josh. 24: 2; Gen. 31 : 
19), the basis of the Old Testament dispensation is laid by the 
calling of Abram (Gen. 12 : 1). While the nations of the earth 
walk in their own ways, in which they develop their natural 
peculiarities, an everlasting people is to be founded in Abram's 
descendants (Isa. 44 : 7), which, in its peculiar national type is 
to be not a product of natural development, but of the creative 
power and grace of God (Deut. 32:6). It is only in this idea 
of the people of God that the key is given to the Old Testa- 
ment history, which would otherwise remain an insoluble rid- 
dle. The view that the Old Testament dispensation is a natural 
production of the religious genius of the people of Israel must 
be absolutely rejected. 

III. The Time of the Three Patriarchs {% 23 — 25) 
§ 23. Abraham. 

Obedient to the divine call, Abram leaves Mesopotamia, 
accompanied by Lot, the ancestor of the Moabites and Am- 



30 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

monites, to go to Canaan, which is already (Gen. 12: 6) posses- 
sed by the tribes bearing this name. In solemn revelation God 
closes with him the covenant of promise (Gen. 15: 1 — 21), and 
Abram, several years later, takes upon himself the obligations 
of the covenant through circumcision (Gen. 17: 1 — 27). 

Three points are contained in the promises given to Abram 
(Gen. 12: 2, 3, 7; 13: 15, 16; 17: 5—8; 22: 16—18): 1 ) Unto 
him is to be given for an everlasting possession to his descend- 
ants, all the land of Canaan; 2) He who remains childless till 
his old age shall have an innumerable posterity ; 3) In his seed 
shall all the earth be blessed. 

Abraham, by his faith, which is reckoned to him for right- 
eousness, becomes the father of all believers (compare Rom. 
4 and Gal. 3), and his name stands at the head of the three 
monotheistic religions of the world f Jewish, Christian and 
Mohammedan) even when looked at in a purely historical way. 

The character of God's people is ethically determined from 
the first, and Gen. 18: 19 shows that not all natural descend- 
ants belong to the true sons of Abraham and to the heirs of 
the promise. 

On the relation of the religion of the patriarchs to the sur- 
rounding heathenism, the narratives in Gen. 14: 18 — 22 and 
Chap. 22 shed the most important light. The former passage 
contains the story of Melchizedek, king of Salem. This Salem 
is without doubt Jerusalem, and Abraham in the way which he 
does homage to Melchizedek manifestly acknowledges the God 
whose priest Melchizedek is. We have here traces of an older 
purer monotheism on Canaanitish ground, which at first sight 
is remarkable, because elsewhere the relation of the Old Tes- 
tament God to the Canaanitish religion is sharply antagonistic. 
No doubt we have here a remnant of an older and pure relig- 
ion, preserved in the midst of the Canaanitish religion by a 
Semitic race dwelling among the Canaanites.* 

Abraham accepted from Salem's priest and king, Melchi- 
zedek, not only bread and wine for the invigoration of his ex- 

* See especially the Interesting researches of Movers in his exhaustive work 
Die PTwnizier. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 3i 

hausted warriors, but a priestly blessing also, and gave him in 
return the tenth of all his booty, as a sign that he acknow- 
ledged this king as a priest of the living God, and that he 
submitted to his royal priesthood. And although we can see 
in Melchizedek nothing more than one, perhaps the last of the 
witnesses and confessors of the early revelation of God, com- 
ing out into the light of history from the dark night of heath- 
enism; yet this appearance does point to a priesthood of 
universal significance, and to a higher order of things, which 
existed at the commencement of the world, and is one day to 
be restored again. In all these respects, the noble form of this 
King of Salem and Priest of the Most High God was a type 
of the God-King and eternal High Priest Jesus Christ; a 
thought which is expanded in Heb. 7, on the basis of this ac- 
count, and of the divine utterance revealed to David in the 
Spirit, that the king of Zion sitting at the right hand of Jeho- 
vah should be a priest forever after the order of Melchizedek 
(Ps. no: 4).* 

With reference to the second narrative, the temptation of 
Abraham, Kurtz in his History of the Old Covenant, seems to 
have given the right explanation. He says : "Abraham must 
have been conscious that the way that led to the perfecting of 
his faith was the way of renunciation and self denial. The sight 
of the Canaanite sacrifices of children must have led Abraham 
to self-examination, whether he would be strong enough in re- 
nunciation and self-denial to do what those heathen did, if his 
God desired it from him. But if the question was once made 
the subject of discussion in Abraham's heart, it had also to be 
brought to a definite and real decision." But the remarks of Keil 
in his Commentary are equally true : " The command to offer up 
his only son Isaac did not come from Abraham's own heart, — 
was not a thought suggested by the sight of the human sacri- 
fices of the Canaanites, that he would offer a similar sacrifice 
to his God ; nor did it originate with the tempter to evil. The 
word came from Ha-Elohim, the personal true God, who tried 
him, who demanded the sacrifice of the only, beloved son, as a 

* See Keil In his Commentary oh Gen. 14: 18—22. 



32 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

proof and attestation of his faith. The issue, however, shows, 
that God did not desire the sacrifice of Isaac by slaying and 
burning him upon the altar, but his complete surrender, and a 
willingness to offer him up to God even by death." Oehler 
makes the following deductions from this point of view : The 
culminating point of worship in the religions of nature was hu- 
man sacrifice. The covenant had to separate itself in this res- 
pect from heathenism ; the truth in it had to be acknowledged, 
and the falsehood denied. In the command to offer up Isaac, 
the truth of the conviction that human life must be sacrificed 
as an unholy thing, is acknowledged ; and by the arresting in- 
tervention of God, the hideous distortion of this truth which 
had arisen in heathenism is condemned and rejected. 

§ 24. Isaac and Jacob. 

Very little is recorded of the life of Isaac ; he walked in 
the footsteps of his father, and the divine promises given to 
the latter were renewed to him (Gen. 26 : 2 — 5). Of his twin- 
sons, Jacob, the second-born son, was chosen as the bearer of 
the promise (Rom. 9: 11). The fundamental thought connected 
with the divine guidance of Jacob's life is, that in spite of all 
human hindrances, the divine counsel reaches its goal, and that 
even human sins must serve for its realization, although they 
are punished none the less. By the sin of Jacob and his mo- 
ther, Isaac's purpose, which was in opposition to the promise 
to Jacob (Gen. 25 : 23), is thwarthed ; yet Jacob's sin is visited 
on him in the straits he experienced in his wanderings (Gen. 
27 : 42 — 45), which were occasioned by his artifice against 
Esau, and particularly in the sorrows afterwards prepared for 
him by his sons, when he who himself had preached deception 
must himself in like manner be deceived. The covenant pro- 
mise given to him at the beginning of his journey to Mesopo- 
tamia, in the theophany at Bethel, in order to strengthen him 
for the years of exile (Gen. 28: 10 — 15), is confirmed at the 
same place on his return (Gen. 35 : 9 — 15), after he had gained 
for himself and his race in the night-long wrestling at Jabbok, 
which forms the turning-point of his life, the new and holy 
name of Israel, characteristic of his divine calling (Gen. 32 : 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 33 

24 — 28). It is common, especially in the practical use of this 
latter passage, to limit oneself to seeing in Jacob's struggle a 
symbol of wrestling in prayer, which does not become wea- 
ried until it wins the blessing. But it is better to distinguish a 
two-fold wrestling. Jacob's combat, when he first wrestles with 
bodily strength, is perhaps a picture of the perverseness of his 
former life, and his becoming lame is then meant to show that 
God does not permit Himself to be forced by natural strength. 
But then Jacob becomes victorious by the weapon of prayer 
(Hos. 12 : 4, 5). 

§ 25. The Twelve Patriarchs. 

That there are twelve tribes is explained by the Old Testa- 
ment from the number of the sons of Jacob. A long period 
of expectation in exile and slavery is first prescribed (Gen. 15 : 
13, 14) to Jacob's descendants before they enter upon their pos- 
session of the land of Canaan. The completion of the divine 
decree is introduced by the providential history of Joseph. 
Jacob dies in Egypt after having predicted the future of the 
tribes descending from his sons, in his prophetic blessing (Gen. 
49), which looks far beyond the time in which his descendants 
continue strangers. The twelve tribes are here portrayed, partly 
according to their geographical relationship, while at the same 
time Jacob's words rest on ethical and psychological consider- 
ations. With regard to the theological meaning of these say- 
ings, it is taught by this blessing, that in the divine kingdom 
things do not occur in the way of nature, but according to div- 
ine choice. Neither he who should have taken the lead by right 
of birth, nor yet the father's darling, is called to stand at the 
head of the Kingdom of God. 

Among the twelve Joseph is especially prominent, who is 
to become a mighty double tribe in his two sons Manasseh and 
Ephraim (Gen. 48 : 5). It is Judah, on the other hand, who is 
specially chosen as the bearer of the promise. 

IV. The time of Moses and foshua (§ 26 — 33). 

1. The deliverance of Israel from the Egyptian Bondage 
(§ 26, 27). 



34 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

§ 26. Condition of the People of Israel in Egypt. 

At the close of the time of the Patriarchs, the biblical ac- 
count passes silently over a long period, in which Israel grows 
up into a people. The simple tribal life, such as we must sup- 
pose Israel's to have been in those centuries, really forms no 
history. 

The Old Testament gives us some intimations of the con- 
dition of the people in Egypt. They seem, on the whole, to 
have kept to the pastoral life of their fathers in Goshen. As 
the Egyptians and Israelites lived together (Ex. 3: 22; 12: 
33 — 36), the people could not have remained unaffected by 
the Egyptian culture, which was at that time already very far 
advanced, and it is a mistake to regard the Israelites at their 
Exodus from Egypt as a rude race of nomads, in whom we may 
not presuppose even the smallest beginning of culture. They 
appear in the Pentateuch as an unmanageable, but not as an 
uncultured people. The political organization of the people 
had developed itself in a genealogical way, which corresponds 
to the natural character of the Semites, who are characterized 
by strong family attachment. With regard to the religious con- 
dition of the nation, we find that among the mass of the people 
the remembrance of the God of their fathers, and of the prom- 
ises given to them, had to be awakened. The purer worship 
of God which we find among the patriarchs had been displaced 
by idol-worship, as may be concluded partly from express tes- 
timony (Josh 24: 14; Ezek. 20: 7 — 9; 23: 8, 19), and partly 
from the idol-worship to which the people gave themselves 
during their wandering in the wilderness (the worship of the calf 
at Sinai, Ex. 32 ; the service of the he-goats, Lev. 17:7; the 
service of the fire god Molech, Lev. 18 : 21 ; 20: 2). 

§ 27. The Course of the Deliverance from Egypt. 

The deliverance from Egypt is related in the book of Exo- 
dus. The divine instrument for this was Moses. What Moses 
failed to do when trying in his own might, he was to accom- 
plish forty years after as an instrument in God's hand. The ten 
plagues which are sent on the Egyptians (Ex. 7 — 12, compared 
with Ps. 78: 43 — 51; 106: 21,22) are mostly connected with 
natural events and conditions which frequently recur in Egypt. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 35 

The order of their succession stands in close connection with 
the natural course of the Egyptian year. But partly the sev- 
erity of the plagues, and partly their connection with the word 
of Moses (Ex. 8 : 5, 6), make them signs of Jehovah's power. 
The plagues rise from step to step until, after the tenth plague 
(the killing of the first born of the Egyptians, which takes place 
the same night as the substitution of the Passover in Israel), the 
Egyptians, full of fear, drive the people from the land.* Be- 
cause the people are not yet matured for war with the nations 
of Canaan, Moses does not lead them to Canaan by the nearest 
road, but chooses the round-about way through the wilderness 
of Sinai. Their faith was tested at the passage of the Red Sea 
(Ex. 14). The duration of Israels stay in Egypt is fixed as 430 
years, according to Ex. 12: 40, compared with Gen. 15 : 13^ 

2. The Institution of the Covenant of the Law and the 
March through the Wilderness f§28 — 31). 

§ 28. The Educational Aim of the Mar eh through the Wilderness. The 
Covenant of the Law established. 

The people, scarcely escaped from the rod of correction, 
from the flesh-pots and idols of Egypt, must be educated, 
sifted and purified for their calling ; and this educational aim 
is secured by the march through the wilderness, where the 
people are thrown entirely on their God, where they become 
aware of their need of help through want and privation, and 
are to be exercised in obedience and trust ; and to prove at 
the same time, in the experience of the divine leading and 
help, what they have in their God (Deut. 8: 2 — 5, 14 — 18). 
In Hos. 2 : 16, the future restoration of Israel is represented 
as a new guidance through the wilderness. In the third month 
(Ex. 19: 1), on the first of the month, the people reached Sinai, 



* The passages in Ex. 3: 21, 22; 11: 2, 3; 12: 35, 36, have been celebrated on ac- 
count of misinterpretation and mistranslation. No robbery is here implied, but a 
simple taking away. The Revised English Version translates correctly. The sense 
of the passages is, that the Egyptians are glad to get rid of the Israelites at this 
price, so that we have here an act of remuneration, that the children of Israel might 
receive at least some compensation for all their labor and suffering. 

t So Delitzsch, Keil, Knobel, Kurtz, Tuch. Winer and many others. But there are 
many commentators who include the 215 years from the Covenant with Abraham to 
the time of Jacob's entering Egypt, within this period of 430 years. 



36 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

where Jehovah, as the Holy One, founds the theocracy and en- 
ters on His Kingship. Then follows the promulgation of the 
fundamental law by which Jehovah binds Israel's race to a holy 
constitution. By the covenant offering (Ex. 24), the entrance 
of the people into communion with the Holy God is sealed. 
With regard to grace and judgment, Israel is from this time 
forward the privileged people of God. 

§ 29. The First Breach of the Covenant. Order of the Camp. Depar- 
ture from Sinai. Sentence on the People. 

The people soon break the covenant by falling into idolatry 
in the absence of Moses (Ex. 32 : 1 — 6). Moses executes judg- 
ment on the idolaters, and on this occasion the tribe of Levi 
obtains its consecration (Ex. 32 : 26 — 29). One of the most 
beautiful sections of the Pentateuch, in which Moses appears 
in all his greatness, is the story of his offering himself as ana- 
thema, if God will only forgive the people, — a thought which has 
been uttered by only one other than Moses, namely Paul (Rom. 
9; 3). During the stay at Sinai, which was for about a year, 
the holy tabernacle is set up and dedicated, the ordinances of 
worship are regulated, and a number of the laws are given. 
Finally the order of encampment is fixed, by which the relation 
of Jehovah to the people as His army, and at the same time 
their relations to each other, are distinctly expressed (Ex. 2 
and 3). 

In the second year, on the twentieth of the month, the re- 
moval from Sinai takes place. They succeed, under repeated 
outbreaks of their stiffneckedness and chastisements suffered 
on this account, in reaching Kadesh Barnea, the southern 
boundary of Canaan. From this point Moses causes the land 
to be searched by twelve spies. The accounts which they bring 
back raise a general insurrection. A wandering of forty years 
long in the wilderness is decreed against the people, during 
which time the whole body of men who were capable of war 
are to be swept away, except Joshua and Caleb, who had no 
share in the offense (Num. 14). Hence the history of the 
march through the wilderness is treated as a type of warning 
for all times (Ps. 78; 1 Cor. 10: 1 — 12; Heb. 3: 7 — 11). 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 37 

§ 30. The Wandering during Thirty-seven Years in the Wilderness, and 
the Events up to the Occupation of the Land on the east side of Jordan. 

The history of the Pentateuch passes over the following 
thirty -seven years almost wholly in silence. According to Deut. 
i : 46, a long stay of the people in Kadesh must be presup- 
posed. The seventeen places of encampment which are men- 
tioned in Num. 33 : 19 — 36 between Rithmath and Kadesh 
are those at which the Israelites pitched their camps during 
the 37 years of wandering in the wilderness. In the first month 
of the fortieth year, the people are again in Kadesh -Barnea. 
The new-grown race show the same stubbornness as the earlier 
one ; they contend with Moses and Aaron ; and as at this time 
even the faith of these two wavers, to them also entrance into 
the land of rest is denied (Num. 20: 10 — 12). A new outbreak 
of the people's stubbornness draws upon them another chas- 
tisement. The brazen saraph (a fiery serpent) which was sus- 
pended, is a symbol of the doing away of evil through the 
power and grace of God (Num. 21 : 4 — 9). To this the typi- 
cal use in John 3: 14 attaches itself. Then follow, in the land 
on the east side of the Jordan, successful combats, as a testi- 
mony of Jehovah's faithfulness and a pledge of future victory. 
Especially interesting is the history of Balaam and Balak (Num. 
22: 1 — 24: 25). It is in this connection that the well-known 
prophetic passage concerning the star and sceptre arising out 
of Israel, occurs (Num. 24: 17 — 19). The new numbering of 
the people, which was made in the plains of Moab (Num. 26), 
shows the new-grown race to be numerically almost the same 
as before (601,730 men fit for war, against 603,550). 

§ 31. Deuteronomy. Death of Moses. His Position among the Organs 
of Revelation. 

The people's wandering is completed, and Moses is to 
place the staff of leadership in Joshua's hands. The last testa- 
ment of the departing leader to his people is given in Deuter- 
onomy. This, although one of the most disputed books in the 
Old Testament, is one of the most beautiful.* When Moses has 

* The view of some modern critics, that the finding of the book of the law at the 
repairing of the temple under Josiah, in the year 624 b. c, (2 Kings 22), was in truth 
the publication of Deuteronomy, which was only written a short time before, is con- 



38 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

finished blessing his people, he mounts to the top of Pisgah in 
order to cast yet one look on the longed-for land, and appears 
no more on earth. His end is related in a mysterious way, but 
is indicated by the same expressions as the common end oi 
man's life (Deut. 34: 5, 7; compared with Deut. 32: 50). (The 
position of the New Testament to the death of Moses is pecu- 
liar. While Heb. 11 : 40 says of the Old Covenant fathers, "that 
apart from us they should not be made perfect," making their 
perfection dependent on the completion of the New Testament 
work of redemption, — the New Testament history of the trans- 
figuration, where Moses appears with Elijah, Matt. 17:3; Luke 
9: 30, 31, presupposes Moses as perfected for the heavenly life. 
If justice is done to all the passages, we must say, with Stier 
( Words of the Lord Jesus, in Matt. 17): "A wonderful excep- 
tion is made with the bodies of these two from the common 
lot of death ; although the lawgiver actually died on account 
of sin, and the prophet was already more nearly raised to the 
victory over death"). 

The position of Moses, as divinely ordained to exercise all 
the powers of the theocracy, is a unique one, which did not 
descend to Joshua, who had only to execute inherited com- 
mands, and administer a law already given. 

3. The Settlement of Israel in the Holy Land (§ 32, 33). 

§ 32. Occupation of Canaan. Extermination of the Canaanites. 

The passage of Jordan ensued in a miraculous way, as a 
pledge to the people that the same mighty God who was with 
Moses would reveal himself also under the new leader (Josh. 4: 
14, 22 — 24). and therefore this event is expressly placed side 
by side with the march through the Red Sea (Josh. 4: 23; Ps. 
114: 3, 5). The key to the land was won by the conquest ot 
Jericho (Josh. 6). The cherem (ban. devotion as a curse), en- 
joined in Deut. 7:2; 20: 16 — 18, was executed on a number 
of Canaanitish towns. The Old Testament knows no other 
ground for the assignment of the land to Israel than the free 
grace of Jehovah, to whom it belonged; and no other ground 

trary to the fact that even the oldest prophets presuppose Deuteronomy, its legislative 
provisions, and also its speeches. But the examination of the critical question of 
Deuteronomy must be left to Old Testament Introduction. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 39 

for the blotting out of the Canaanite tribes than the divine jus- 
tice which, after these tribes have filled up the measure of their 
sins in unnatural abominations (Deut. 12 : 31), breaks in at last 
in vengeance, after long waiting. But Israel is threatened with 
exactly the same judgment (Deut. 8: 19, 20; Josh. 23: 15, 16) 
if it become guilty of the sins of the tribes on whom it exe- 
cutes the divine judgment with the sword. 

§ 38. Division of the Land. Character of the Promised Land. Israel 
at the Close of this Period. 

In the seventh year after their entrance (Josh. 14 : 10), the 
Israelites began the division of the land, although it was not 
yet in all parts completely vanquished (Josh. 13 : 2 — 6). Ele- 
azar the priest, and Joshua, with the chiefs of the tribes, man- 
aged the business of division.* The division of the land was 
carried out so that not merely the limits of the tribal territories 
were fixed, but inside these also the districts of the families. 
Thus the life of tribe and family remained the basis of civil 
society. The separation from the other peoples commanded in 
the law (see especially Lev. 20 : 24, 26) was made easier by 
the secluded position of the land, which was inclosed on the 
south and east by great wildernesses, on the north by the high 
mountains of Lebanon, and which even on the west was un- 
favorable situated for maritime intercourse. On the other hand, 
by the situation of the land in the midst of the cultivated na- 
tions which figure in ancient history, as well as by means ol 
the great highways of the old world which led past its board- 
ers, the future theocratic calling of the people was made possi- 
ble. A first consequence of the position of Israel in the midst 
of nations was, that it courted the powers of the world, and was 
chastised by all, so that all became instruments of judgment on 
Israel. But on the other side, it was this central position which 
made this land fit for the starting-point of the religion of the 
world. 

Two parts of the promise given to the patriarchs were ful- 
filled — the entrance of Israel into their rest in the promised 

* The second part of the Book of Joshua is of immense value for Biblical Geog- 
raphy. 



40 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

land, and the increase of the people like the stars of heaven 
(Deut. 10: 22). But the dominion over the nations (Gen. 27 : 
29; 49: 10) was not yet obtained, the blessing of Abraham was 
not yet come to the heathen; nay, a new cycle of history must 
arise in which centuries of contest for mere existence were or- 
dained for the people. 

PART II. THE DOCTRINES AND ORDINANCES OF 
MOSAISM (§ 34 — 156). 

§ 34. Survey. 

This section is divided as follows : 

1 . The doctrine of God and His relation to the world. 

2. The doctrine of man and his relation to God. 

3. The laiv covenant and the theocracy. 

First Division. The Doctrine of God and His relation to 
the world (§ 35 — 66). 

1. The Mosaic Idea of God (§ 35 — 48). 
§ 85. Survey. 

The most general designations of the Divine Being are El, 
Eloah, Elohim, El- Ely on, El-Shaddai, and Jehovah. It is a 
mistake to bring the theological divisions of a later period into 
Biblical Theology, and to treat God's attributes according to a 
preconceived scheme. Biblical Theology traces the religion of 
revelation in its rise and development, and finds for the defini- 
tion of the idea of God a gradually advancing series of state- 
ments concerning the divine essence. But in these stages the 
idea of God is so unfolded that the higher stages do not de- 
stroy the lower, but embrace them. 

§ 36. The names El, Eloah, Elohim, El-Ely on. 

1. El is the oldest Semitic name of God. As a name of 
the true God, it is not frequent in the prose of the Old Testament. 
It hardly ever appears except with the article, or in connection 
with a following genitive, or an attribute annexed in some other 
way. Its original sense is "the powerful, the strong." The name 
iT/also appears in a number of the oldest names of men (Gen. 
4: 18, Mehuja-el, Methusha-el). 

2. Eloah the singular of Elohim occurs in the Old Testa- 
ment almost exclusively in poetical language, with the excep- 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 41 

tion of the later books composed under Aramaic influence. It 
originally expresses the impression made by power. Eloah is, 
according to this, the power which awakens terror. That the 
natural man finds himself, when confronted by the Divinity, 
chiefly moved by a feeling of fear, is expressed in this desig- 
nation of God. 

3. The most common designation of the Divine Being in 
the Old Testament is Elohim, the plural of Eloah. This plural 
form is peculiar to the Old Testament and it appears as a name 
of God only in old Hebrew, and in none of the other Semitic 
languages. The meaning of the plural is not numerical, either 
in the sense in which some older theologians understand it ? 
who seek the mystery of the Trinity in the name;* or in the 
sense that the expression had originally a polytheistic meaning, 
and only at a later period acquired a singular sense ; or that 
originally the plural indicated the one God together with the 
angels ; but it is much better to explain Elohim, as the quan- 
titative plural, which is used to denote unlimited greatness. 
The plural signifies the infinite fulness of the might and power 
which lies in the Divine Being, and thus passes over into the 
intensive plural, as Delitzsch has named it. The plural con- 
tained in Adonai is to be explained in the same way; indeed, 
this plural of majesty has also passed to other titles of God. 
Elohim remains all through the Old Testament the general 
name of God; and is used with special emphasis in the Eloh- 
istic psalms. 

As the name of the true God, Elohim is regularly joined 
with the singular \ 

4. The divine name El- Ely on {God Most High) is also 
used outside of the sphere of revelation. It occurs in the his- 
tory of Melchizedek (Gen. 14: 18), and it is characteristic that 
it appears in the mouth of the king of Babylon (Isa. 14: 14), 
probably to designate Bel. 



* But even this view has some truth at its foundation, since the plural form, indi- 
cating the inexhaustible fulness of the Divinity, serves to combat the most daring en- 
emy of the doctrine of the Trinity— abstract monotheism. 



42 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

§ 37. El-Shaddai. 

This name characterizes God as revealing Himself in His 
might. Delitzsch on Gen. 17: 1 forcibly says : <( Elohim is the 
God who creates nature so that it is, and supports it so that it 
continues; El-Shaddai, the God who compels nature to do 
what is contrary to itself, and subdues it to bow and minister 
to grace." But as soon as the name Jehovah unfolds its mean- 
ing, the name El-Shaddai falls back on the one hand into the 
list of the more general names of God. 

§ 38. Pronunciation and Grammatical Explanation of the Name 
Jehovah. 

The word Jehovah in the Masoretic text of the Old Testa- 
ment has the vowel pointing of Adonai. The prohibition for- 
bidding the utterance of the name is derived by the Jews from 
Lev. 24: 16, in virtue of an untenable exposition of the pas- 
sage in the LXX(he that nameth the name of the Lord). How 
old the dread of uttering the name, is, cannot be accurately 
fixed. The Jews maintain that the knowledge of the true pro- 
nunciation has been entirely lost since the destruction of the 
temple. Ex. 3: 13 — 15 is the decisive passage for the pronun- 
ciation and grammatical explanation of the name. We must read 
either Jahveh or Jahaveh. The first form is more probable, and 
we must regard the word as a noun formed from the third per- 
son of the imperfect oihawah, the older form oi hay ah {he was). 

§ 39. The Signification of the Name Jehovah. 

The name signifies He who is, according to Ex. 3: 14; 
more particularly, He who is what He is. God is Jahveh in as 
far as he has entered into an historical relation to mankind, and 
in particular to the chosen people Israel. 1) The name carries 
us into the sphere of the divine freedom. It expresses quite 
generally the absolute independence of God in his dominion. 
2) The name further conveys the idea of the absolute immut- 
ability of God, and implies the invariable faithfulness of God. 

§ 40. Age and Origin of the Name Jehovah. 

Every attempt to derive the name from heathenism rests on 
arbitrary hypotheses. The more exact determination of the 
Old Testament origin of the name, depends on the explanation 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 43 

ol the passage in Ex. 6 : 3. We are not to explain this as if 
the name Jehovah had been entirely unknown to the patriarchs, 
and that we have here the first revelation of the name; but 
rather in this sense, that the name Jehovah had not been yet 
understood by the patriarchs, and that they had not had the 
full experience of that which lies in the name. The name, 
therefore, reaches back to primeval antiquity, and was not first 
introduced by Moses. 

§ 41. Comparison of the Name Jehovah with Elohim and El. 

In general, all universally cosmical action of God, going 
out toward the heathen as well as toward Israel in the creation 
and preservation of the world, is traced to El and Elohim; to 
Jehovah, on the other hand, is traced every divine act which 
is connected with the theocratic revelation and guidance, and 
which bears on the heathen only in so far as their history stands 
in relation to the aim of the divine kingdom. This difference, 
however, from the nature of the case, is not strictly kept up 
everywhere in the Old Testament in the use of the names ol 
God. But still it is plainly apparent that the Old Testament 
writers had a very definite consciousness of the indicated dif- 
ference*. Theophany in general is predicated of Jehovah, who, 
and not Elohim, holds intercourse with man in the manner of 
men. Hence it comes that anthropomorphisms are almost al- 
ways applied to Jehovah, and not to Elohim. 

§ 42. Attributes of God which are derived immediately from the idea 
of Jehovah. 

1. Jehovah is an eternal; God, the Everlasting God, as 
Abraham addresses Him in Gen. 21: 33 Ccompare Deut. 32: 
40). God's eternity is involved in His absolute independence, 
in virtue whereof God is not conditioned by anything which 
originates or decays in time, but is the first and the last (Isa. 
44: 6; 48: 12). While God as Jehovah is the eternal, God's 
eternity is denned as the unchangeableness of His being, con- 
tinuing throughout every change of time, and thus it becomes 
the basis of human confidence. 

* It Is well known that the first book of Psalms (Ps. 1—41) Is JeTiovistic, and the 
second (Ps. 42—72), Elohlstlc. 



44 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA, 

2. In the word Jehovah is involved the idea that He is a 
living God (Gen. 16: 14; Deut. 5 : 26). He is acknowledged 
as the living God in the midst of the congregation by his deeds 
of revelation (Josh. 3: 10), and by his words of revelation (Jer. 
23: 36). 

3. Jehovah is the Lord, — my Lord {Adonai). According 
to the original meaning of Adonai ("my Lord"), there lies in 
it, not simply the acknowledgement of the divine sovereignty 
in general, but also the consciousness of specially belonging to 
God, the consciousness of standing under his immediate guid- 
ance and protection. 

§ 43. The Unity of God. 

Monotheism forms one of the fundamental doctrines of 
Mosaism. Jehovah is one (Deut. 6 : 4). 

1. Some have maintained that the unity oj God was devel- 
oped gradually Jrom a polytheistic religion, but for this there is 
no evidence whatever. 

2. Others again maintain that the Mosaic Jehovah does not 
exclude the existence of other Gods. 

It cannot be disputed, that many of the Israelites regarded 
Jehovah only as a god beside other gods of the people, but it 
is equally clear, however, that this view is always combated by 
the organs of revelation as a perversion of the idea of Jehovah. 
Judaism is certainly right in continually proclaiming the pas- 
sage Deut. 6 : 4 as the most holy word, which includes the 
fundamental doctrine of monotheism. Of the two admissible 
explanations of this passage, a) " Hear, O Israel: the Lord our 
God is one Lord," and b) " the Lord our God, the Lord is 
one," — the latter seems the more correct. 

Another question has also been raised, whether the gods of 
the heathen did not exist according to the Old Testament, if 
not as gods, at least as living beings, perhaps as demons. But 
for this also there is no evidence. 

§ 44. Formal Definition of the Idea of God as the Holy One. 
In virtue of its inexhaustible signification, the divine holi- 
ness is one of the most difficult terms in the Bible to define. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 45 

The first declaration of the divine holiness is found in Moses' 
song of praise, Ex. 15 : 11 (glorious in holiness). 

When holiness is predicated of the covenant people and 
covenant ordinances, two things are implied : 1) being taken 
out of worldliness ; 2) being appropriated by God. Whenever 
this character of holiness pertains to anything, this never rests 
on a natural quantity. 

Where kadosh (holiness) is a designation of a divine at- 
tribute, there evidently lies in it primarily a negative element, 
by which it designates a state of apartness, God raising him- 
self up above others. God's holiness is God's self-preservation, 
by virtue of which he remains like himself in all relations 
which either are in him or on which he enters in any way, and 
neither gives up any part of his divinity nor accepts any- 
thing ungodly. Two things lie in the divine holiness, 1) that 
He stands in opposition to the world, and again, 2) that He 
removes this opposition by choosing in the world some whom 
he places in communion with Himself (Isa. 57 : 15). 

All demonstrations of the divine covenant of grace are the 
issues of the divine holiness. 

§ 45. Fuller Definition of the Idea. 

If, in order to come at the concrete side of the matter, we 
proceed from the question, what is the meaning of God's sanc- 
tifying a people to Himself? — the answer is, that it relates to 
the restoration of a perfect life, both inwardly and outwardly. 
Now, if we argue from this to the meaning of the divine holi- 
ness, it may be defined concretely as an absolute perfection of 
life, but essentially in an ethical sense. It is true, however, that 
the notions of divine holiness and glory are related. We may 
say with Oetinger, holiness is hidden glory, and glory disclosed 
holiness. 

On the whole, we may define the divine holiness as mainly 
separation from the impurity and sinfulness of the creature, or 
expressed positively, the clearness and purity of the divine nat- 
ure, which excludes all communion with what is wicked. In 
this sense the symbolical designation of the divine holiness is, 
that God is light (Isa. 10: 17). The divine holiness, as a re- 



46 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

vealed attribute, is not an abstract power, but is the divine self- 
representation and self- testimony for the purpose of giving to 
the world a participation in the perfection of the divine life. 

§ 46. Characteristics connected with the Divine Holiness. 1. Impossi- 
bility of Picturing God, Omnipresence, Spirituality. 

i. Inasmuch as the divine holiness is the separateness ot 
the Divine Being from all finiteness of the creature, it includes, 
the impossibility of forming an image of the Divine Being. 
From Deut. 4: 15 — 19 we learn that the prohibition of repre- 
senting God by any figure or form is absolute. Neither can any 
argument contradictory to the utterances of the Old Testament 
as to the idea of God be drawn from anthropomorphisms* , 
for no religion can dispense with such anthropomorphic 
expressions when it enters into the sphere of representative 
thought, and everything depends on making it sure that the 
literal application of such expressions shall be corrected by the 
whole conception of the idea of God. 

2. It is self-evident that the Pentateuch regards God, to 
whom the heaven and the heavens of heaven, the earth and all 
that is upon it, belong (Deut. 10: 14), as omnipresent, even 
when such express delineations of omnipresence as in Ps. 139, 
are not found in the Pentateuch. Compare, however, such 
passages as Gen. 16: 13; 28: 15 — 17; 46: 4; etc. Beyond this, 
the Pentateuch has mainly to do with the special presence 
which God gives by living among his people, when he localizes 
his face, his name, his glory — the so-called Shekhina (see 
§63). 

3. The express declaration that God is spirit does not 
occur in the Old Testament, which is rather accustomed to say 
that God has the spirit, and causes it to go out from Him ; by 
which, however, the Spirit is indicated as the element of God's 
life (Isa. 40: 13; Ps. 139: 7; Isa. 31 : 3). The absolute per- 
sonality of God is frequently expressed in the word "I am He" 
(Deut. 32: 39; Isa. 43: 10). 



* Those expressions in the Scriptures in which parts of the human body, or more 
generally the senses, are transferred to God. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 47 

§ 47. 2. The Divine Righteousness, Faithfulness and Truth. 

With the Divine holiness in its ethical character are con 
nected the attributes of divine righteousness, divine faithfulness 
and truth. These attributes are united in the main passage, 
Deut. 32 : 4. 

1. God is righteous. The Hebrew word for righteous 
(tsaddiq,) expresses what is straight and right, in the sense 
that God in His government always does what is suitable; 
namely, i) what answers fully to his aim; and 2) what answers 
to the constitution of the object of the divine action. Specially, 
but not exclusively, the sphere in which this righteousness 
manifests itself is the judicial activity of God. 

As in the idea of Jehovah, who is absolutely immutable, so 
also in the idea of the Holy One in virtue of its ethical mean- 
ing, the attribute of truth and faithfulness is given (compare 
Isa. 49: 7 ; Hos. 11 : 9). In the Old Testament this attribute 
is specially emphasized in referring to the divine word of 
promise, and the agreement to the divine action therewith. One 
of the chief passages in the Pentateuch is Num. 23: 19. 
(Compare 1 Sam. 15: 29; Ps. 36: 5). 

§ 48. 3. The Jealous God. 

In the idea of divine holiness is included that God is a 
Jealous God (Ex. 34: 14; Deut. 6: 15). The divine zeal is the 
energy of the divine holiness. The divine zeal has a twofold 
form : 

1. It turns itself avengingly against every violation of the 
divine will. God's jealousy turns especially against idolatry 
(Deut. 32: 21), and generally against all sin by which God's 
holy name is desecrated. Thus the divine jealousy manifests 
itself as divi?ie wrath. For the wrath of God is the most in- 
tense energy of the holy will of God, the zeal of his wounded 
love. On the connection of the two ideas, jealousy and wrath, 
compare Deut. 6: 15; 32: 21, 22; Ps. 78: 58, 59. 

As wrath is a manifestation of divine holiness, the occasion 
of its outburst does not lie in a capricious divine humor or 
natural malignity, but wholly in the person smitten by it. If 
man denies and rejects the testimony of the holy God which 



48 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

was given to him, justice must be executed upon him in his 
resistance to God's will, which alone is in the right, by his 
being reduced to his own nothingness. But the manifestation 
of wrath also receives its measure from divine holiness, which 
measure is ordained by the divine aim of salvation, and hence 
it is not the sway of blind passion (Hos. 11:9; Jer. 10: 24; 
and the parable in Isa. 28 : 23 — 29). 

2. Jehovah is Jealous not for Himself alone, but also for 
His holy people, so far as they are in a position of grace, or are 
taken into favor again by Him. From this side His jealousy 
is the zeal of love as an energetic vindication of the unmatched 
relation in which God has placed His people to Himself. The 
anthropopathies* of the Old Testament come for the most part 
under this heading. 

II. The Relation of God to the World. (§ 49 — 66). 

§ 49. General Survey. 

The existence of the world as absolutely due to the divine 
causality is presented in three propositions : 

1. When reflection is directed to the existence of the world, 
both as to its beginning and as to its subsistence, we reach the 
doctrine of the Creation and Preservation of the world. 

2. When we consider how the world is so, and not other- 
wise, we get the doctrine of the aim of the world and of divine 
Providence, with which is connected the question of the divine 
causality to the wickedness and evil in the world. 

3. For the realization of His aim, God enters on a peculiar 
relation to the world; the means by which God brings about 
this His special relation to the world are exhibited in the doc- 
trine of Revelation. 

§ 50 — 52. First Doctrine. On the Creation and Preser- 
vation of the World. 

I. On the Creation. (§ 50, 51). 

§ 50. Creation by the Word. 

The Mosaic doctrine of creation rests on two fundamental 

thoughts: 1) that the production of the world proceeded from 

the Word; and 2) from the Spirit of God. 

* Those declarations concerning God in which human emotions, and changes 
in these emotions, are attributed by God. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 49 

The form of the creation of the world is the speaking, or 
the Word of God ; this means that the world originated through 
a conscious, free divine act. This excludes i) every theory of 
the origin of the world by emanation ; and 2) the assumption 
of an eternal elementary matter independent of God. 

The first verse of Genesis is not to be considered as a title, 
a summary statement of the contents of the chapter, but rather 
a declaration of the primordial creation of the matter of the 
universe. 

The central idea is creation, and the Hebrew word bara 
here used, always means the production of something new 
which has not had a previous existence. 

It is clear that Mosaism places itself above all natural 
religions by the declaration, "In the beginning God created the 
heaven and the earth." 

§ 51. The Divine Spirit in Creation. 

Since the world is placed outside of God, it originated and 
subsists only by the life imparted to it by His Spirit ; thus it is 
not separated from Him, although distinct from Him. 

The life of the creature, according to the record of creation, 
does not proceed from the chaotic mass ; but life comes from 
God (Ps. 36 ; 9). That the Spirit of God really acts in the 
creative word, and that it is itself endued with the power oi 
life, is indicated by the expression in Ps. 33 : 6, where the Spirit 
is characterized as the Spirit of the divine mouth ; it lies also 
in Isa. 40: 13, that the Divine Spirit acting in the creation is 
a consciously working and intelligent power, as, according to 
Ps. 139 : 7, the divine omnipresence in the world acts by means 
of the all penetrating Spirit of God. Creature life proceeds 
from God, but it does not flow from God; it is imparted freely 
by God to the creature (Isa. 42: 5). It is not a life which God 
lives in the creature, but a relatively independent life of the 
creatures, derived from God. 

§ 52. II. On the Preservation of the World, 
1. The preservation of the world is, on the one hand, dis- 
tinguished in the Old Testament from its creation, inasmuch, 
as, according to Gen. 2 : 2, the production of the classes of 



50 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

creatures has a conclusion, which is formed by the Sabbath of 
creation ; while, on the other hand, the agency of God in this 
preservation is represented as a continous creation. 

2. The continuance of this system of the world is estab- 
lished at each moment by the divine omnipotence. The preser- 
vation of the world rests contimially on the same foundation as 
the creation, on God's word of command, which he continually 
sends forth (Ps. 147: 15 — 18); and it rests just as continually 
on the Divine Spirit, which he causes ever to go forth — (Ps. 
104 : 29, 30). This last passage shows how the preservation ol 
the creature can be looked at from the point of view of a con- 
tinous creation ; and this thought, that a creative working of 
God goes on in the preservation of creation, is in general im- 
printed in various forms on the Old Testament phraseology 
(Ex. 4: 11; Isa. 42: 5). 

Second Doctrine. The Divine aim of the World. Divine 
Providence (§53, 54). 

§ 53. The Design of Creation, and its Realization through Providence. 
That a divine plan is to be realized in the world, and that 
the divine creation is therefore a teleological act, is shown in 
the account of the creation. In all his creating God approves 
the works of his hands ; but still the creating God does not 
reach the goal of his creation until he has set over against him 
his image in man. From this last fact it is plain that the self- 
revelation of God, the unveiling of his Being, is the final end 
of the creation of the world ; or to express it more generally, 
that the whole world serves to reveal the divine glory, and is 
thereby the object of divine joy (Ps. 104 131). 

But in mankind the aim of the creation of the world, the 
glorifying of God. was disturbed by sin. But in spite of the 
dominion of sin, the divine aim in the world shall come to its 
realization (Num. 14: 21). The choosing of the race through 
which God's blessing shall come on all races of the earth (Gen. 
12 : 3 ; 18 : 18), serves this divine aim. 

It is clear that the Old Testament teaches a providence 
which embraces everything, since it subjects everything to the 
divine direction (Ps. 65 : 2). The divine providence extends 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 51 

also to the animals (Ps. 104: 21, 27 ; Job 38 : 41 ; Ps. 147 : 9). 
No sphere of chance exists in the Old Testament. From Ex. 
21 : 13, we infer that even what men call accidental death is 
under God's direction. Even in drawing lots " the lot is cast 
into the lap; but the whole disposing thereof is of the Lord " 
(Prov. 16 : 33). 

§ 54. Relation of the Divine Causality to Moral and Physical Evil. 

Moral and physical evil were not originally in the world. 
The latter was penally ordained (Gen. 3 : 17—19) after the 
former had entered the world by the free act of man, and from 
this time forward both form an element of the divine order of 
the world. 

1. Physical evil in the Old Testament is regarded as pun- 
ishment for sin, or div'me judgment. In the Pentateuch it is 
taught that the evil in man's life is also a means of proving 
him, especially of proving his obedience and his trust in God, 
and thus a means of purifying him. According to Deut. 8 : 2, 
3, the privations endured in the wilderness were meant to be a 
school of humility and faith, that the people might learn to 
trust to the power of the Almighty God. 

2. But also, even in moral evil, in man's sin, the divine 
causality operates, and this it does in various ways. 

Man's sin cannot thwart the divine purpose of salvation; it 
must rather serve to the realization thereof (Gen. 45 : 8 ; 
50: 20). 

The wickedness of some must serve to prove and purify 
others, that it may be known whether they are strong to stand 
against it (Deut. 13 : 3). 

But a divine causality works also in regard to the sinner 
himself, and for various ends. God permits one who habitually 
walks in God's ways to fall into sin in order to try him, to re- 
veal to him a hidden curse in his heart, and so to bring to its 
issue a merited judgment, and thus bring God's justice to light. 
Compare 2 Sam. 24 (the numbering of the people) ; 2 Chron. 

32: 3i- 

On another, who internally cherishes sin within him, and 
wilfully strives against God, the divine causality acts by giv- 



52 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA 

ing him up to sin, so that sinning- becomes necessary to this 
man, and he must glorify God by the judgment which he has 
incurred. This is the hardening of the heart of a man, so often 
spoken of in the Pentateuch, Ex. 4:21; 7 : 3 (Pharaoh) ; Deut. 
2 : 30 (Sihon) ; etc. 

The expressions used to denote hardening of the heart can- 
not be referred to a simply negative relation to wickedness ; 
but still man's sin is not removed because a positive divine 
agency rules in his hardening. Man can indeed do nothing 
that would not on one side be God's work (Lam. 3: 37, 38), 
and yet he must acknowledge sin as his guilt (Lam. 3: 39). 
Isa. 45 : 7 (a passage possibly directed against the dualism of 
the Persian religion) shows especially how the Monism of the 
Old Testament permitted nothing to be withdrawn from the 
divine causality. 

Third Doctrine. Of Revelation ( § 5 5 — 66 ) . 

§ 55. Introductory Remarks and General View. 

1. Although God has made himself known in general re- 
velation (see § 6), He nevertheless makes himself known in a 
more special sense, in which he is pleased to enter into the 
limits of the sphere of the creature, in order to present Himseh 
personally, and to give testimony of Himself to man. This 
side of the revelation of the Divine Being \s> characterized as the 
divine name, the divine presence and the divine glory. 

2. The forms and vehicles in which this divine self- pre- 
sentation and self- witness reaches man from without are 1) the 
voice, 2) the Malakh or Angel, 3) the Shekhina in the sanctuary, 
and 4) miracle. The divine self- witness enters the heart of man 
by means of the Spirit. 

1. The Revelation of the Divine Being (§ 56, 57). 

§ 56. The Divine Name. 

The true God can be named by man only so far as He re- 
veals himself to man and discloses to him His nature. God 
names himself according to the relation in which He has 
placed himself to man, and according to the attributes by 
which He wishes to be acknowledged, known and addressed 
by man. In short, God names Himself, not according to what 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 53 

He is for Himself, but to what He is for man; and therefore 
every self-presentation of God in the world is expressed by a 
corresponding name of God, as we have already seen (see § 
36 — 39). In the New Testament stage, when the only begotten 
Son has revealed God's name to man (John 17 : 6), it is God's 
good pleasure to be named the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ 
or, to express universally the now completed relation of salva- 
tion, by the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost (Matt. 
28: 19). 

The expression "name of God" is not merely a title, but at 
the same time the whole divine self- presentation by which God 
in personal presence testifies of Himself — the whole side of the 
divine nature which is turned toward man. It designates every 
manifestation of the Divine Being which attaches to places, in- 
stitutions, and facts, in virtue of which God gives His people a 
direct experience of Himself. Wherever God is known and 
experienced in personal presence, there His name is. 

§ 57. The Divine Countenance and the Divine Glory. 

That by which God is present among His people is turther 
styled the divine countenance (presence). Ex. 33 : 14 — 16 is 
the main passage. 

By the face of God is meant, in distinction from His tran- 
scendent and infinite nature, His coming down into the sphere 
of the created, whereby He can be brought within the immediate 
knowledge of man. Here belongs Deut. 4 : 37, where it is said 
that Jehovah brought Israel out of Egypt by His countenance 
(with his presence). Only from this, too, is the full meaning of 
the high priest's blessing rightly understood, Num. 6 : 24 — 26. 

Finally, for name and countenance the indefinite expression, 
glory of Jehovah is used (Ex. 33 : 18). In the same way, it is 
the glory of Jehovah through which Jehovah appears to His 
people on Mount Sinai, under covert of the cloud (Ex. 24: 16), 
and which is present in the holy tabernacle (Ex 40 : 34). 

2. The Forms of Revelation C§ 58 — 66). 

§ 58. The Divine Voiee. 

As divine speech is in general the form of divine working 
in the world, ^o the word is the most general form of divine 



54 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

revelation. So far as this word of God comes internally to the 
organs of revelation, it coincides with the revelation which is 
effected by the Spirit (compare § 65). But the Old Testament 
specifies also among its mediums of revelation also the out- 
wardly audible voice; indeed, in Deut. 4: 12, special weight is 
laid upon this form of revelation. 

With this was connected in the later Jewish theology the 
doctrine of the Bath- Kol, or revelations by means of heavenly 
voices, such as Elijah received. The expression Bath Kol 
(daughter of the voice) means that the divine voice itself is 
not heard, but only its working, or else that Kol designates the 
heavenly voice itself, and Bath- Kol its echo. This form of re- 
velation appears in the New Testament in Matt. 3 : 17 ; 17:5; 
John 12 : 28 ; and very frequently in the Apocalypse. 

§ 59. The Doetrine of the Angel of the Lord, of the Covenant, of the 
Countenance*. The Exegetieal State of the Case. 

In a more concrete form God manifests Himself in the 
Malakh (angel), generally called Malakh Jehovah. 

The principal passages are : 

1. Gen. 16: 7 — 14, where the Malakh appears to Hagar. 

2. Gen. 18 : 1 — 33, where one of the three men (angels) 
is expressly distinguished as Jehovah (vv. 20, 26, etc.) from 
the two others, who are called angels (Gen. 19: 1) and are 
said (Gen. 19 : 13) to be sent by Jehovah. 

3. Gen. 22: 11, 12, where the Malakh Jehovah calls to 
Abraham from heaven as if he were God Himseh. 

4. Gen. 31 : 11 — 13, where the Malakh Jehovah calls him- 
self " the God of Bethel." 

5. Gen. 32 : 29 — 31, where the man (angel) with which 
Jacob wrestles is designated as an appearance of God. 

6. Gen. 48 : 15 — 16, where God is indentified with the 
Malakh. 

7. Ex. 3 : 2, and the following narrative, where the 
Malakh Jehovah is identified with Jehovah and Elohim. 

* The doctrine of the angel of t7ie Lord is one of the most important and difficult 
points in the Old Testament, on which, even as early as the Church Fathers, there 
were various views, and about which, to this day, no agreement has been reached. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 55 

8. In Ex. 13: 21 it is said thai Jehovah went before Israel; 
on the contrary in Ex. 14 : 19 we read that it was the Malakh. 
§ 60. Continuation. The Different Views. 
The following main views are to be distinguished : 

1. The view taken in the early ages of the church by Au- 
gustine, Jerome, and Gregory the Great ; in our day with spec- 
ial modifications by Hofmann, from whom it has been adopted 
by Kurtz and Delitzsch (though Delitzsch holds the view with 
peculiar indecision) — that an angel is to be understood by the 
Malakh, a finite spirit under subjection to God, which executes 
the divine command in the cases mentioned. 

But this first view occurs in two forms, a) Some hold that 
the Malakh is an angel specially deputed by God from among 
the number of Malakhim for each separate occasion, and that 
we have no means of deciding whether he is always the same 
angel or not ; U) others maintain (principally Hofmann) that it 
is one and the same angel through whom God stands in relation 
to the people of revelation from the beginning to the end of the 
Old Testament — the special angel who rules in the common- 
wealth and history of this people, the archangel Michael of the 
book of Daniel. 

2. The second principal view is that the Malakh of Jeho- 
vah is a self -representation of Jehovah entering into the sphere 
of the creature, and is one in essence zvith Jehovah ; and is yet 
again different from Him. 

There are different forms of this view, but the most im- 
portant is the one which regards the Malakh as the Logos, the 
second person of the Godhead in the sense of the Christian 
doctrine of Trinity. This is the view of most Greek Fathers, 
of Justin, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Cyprian, and Eusebius. At a 
later period this was the view of the Lutheran theologians ; 
and in our own day has been defended by Hengstenberg and 
others. 

Oehler maintains that the doctrine of the Malakh in the Old 
Testament oscillates in a peculiar manner between its concep- 
tion of the angel, as a form and as a being, so that it seems im- 
possible to bring the matter to a definite intelligible expression. 



56 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

He states however that the case has a different aspect from the 
standpoint of the New Testament. From this (see especially i 
Cor. 10 : 4) it is the Logos, the Son of God through whom re- 
velations to Israel are made, and who therefore works in the 
Malakh. But nowhere in the New Testament is the Son of 
God so identified with the Malakh as if His incarnation had 
been preceeded by His permanently becoming- an angel. The 
Logos, according to the New Testament view, works also in 
the other forms of revelation in the old covenant and in just 
the same way as in the form of the Malakh. 

§ 61. Other Points of the Mosaic Angelology. 

Even in the Pentateuch, though there comparatively sel- 
dom, other angels of God appear side by side with the Malakh. 
Nothing is said about their creation ; nor are they mentioned 
in the account of the creation of the earth, and its completion 
in man. On the contrary Job 38 : 7 presupposes the existence 
of the angels when the earth was created. Gen. 6 : 1 —4 would 
be entirely without a parallel, not only in the Pentateuch, but 
in the whole Old Testament, if higher spirits are to be under- 
stood by the Sons of God. The question is : Are the Sons of 
God, Sethites, or, are they higher spirits ? and is a fall of the 
angels here spoken of? At present the hypothesis of the angels 
is the most widely spread (so Hofmann, Kurtz, Delitzsch, and 
others), a view which originally sprang from the book of 
Enoch. But Oehler (with the Reformers, and in more modern 
times Hengstenberg, Keil, and others), rightly refers the ex- 
pression "sons of God" to men, to the pious race descended 
from Seth, as the name " Sons of God " is used in Deut. 14 : 1 ; 
32: 5; etc. 

In comparison with the later books of the Old Testament, 
the angelology of the Pentateuch is but little developed. 

§ 62. The Shekhina. 

The continous localization ot the divine presence was made 
in the Shekhina, {shakhan, he dwelt, resided), that is, the dwell- 
ing of God, distinguished from passing theophanies by virtue of 
its countenance. The first abode of the divine Shekhina, ac- 
cording to the Old Testament, was Eden, as appears from the 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 57 

whole description in Gen. 2 and 3, but in particular from the 
mention of the cherubim (Gen. 3 : 24), which were bearers of 
the divine presence. The book of Genesis seems to suggest 
the idea that the dwelling place of the glory and the counte- 
nance of God continued there upon the earth until the judg- 
ment of the flood came on the world. Then after the flood 
God revealed Himself for the first time from heaven. At a 
later time, God's dwelling among His people was in the sanc- 
tuary (Ex. 40 : 34 — 38). Here now is God's countenance (Ex. 
23: 17; Deut. 31: 11; Ps. 42: 2; 63: 3). From passages such 
as Lev. 9: 24; 10: 2, the Shekhina shows its reality in the 
sanctuary by means of acts of power which go out from it. 
The Shekhina of God on earth corresponds to His dwelling in 
heaven (1 Kings 8 : 30, 39, 49,) which, like that in the sanctuary, 
is definitely distinguished from the presence of God, which 
embraces the whole universe (1 Kings 8 : 27J. 

According to this presentation, God's dwelling is outside the 
human subject. The New Testament (John 1 : 14) is the first 
to place the divine Shekhina in a human person, in the Logos 
become flesh, and then it speaks of God's making His abode 
with believers (John 14: 23). Still the proper Shekhina of 
God in heaven appears again in the Apocalypse (Rev. 7 : 15), 
and the aim of the Divine Kingdom is said to be the dwelling 
of God on the glorified earth (Rev. 21 : 3). See also Jer. 
3: 16-18. 

§ 63. The Doetrine of Miracle. Its Appearance in History and various 
Names. 

By miracles the Old Testament understands manifestations 
of the divine power in the objective world, both in nature and 
in history. It is characteristic of the course of Old Testament 
revelation, that no real miracle — that is, no miracle wrought 
by man's agency — is related in the time of the patriarchs. Moses 
is the first organ of revelation endowed with the gift of per- 
forming miracles. 

The closer definition of the notion of miracles follows mainly 
from the names for a miracle: 



58 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

1. The most general expression /£-/<? characterizes a mir- 
acle in its negative aspect, as an occurence withdrawn from the 
common course of things, and thus an extraordinary occur- 
rence. In the New Testament this negative characteristic of a 
miracle is denoted by the expression teras. 

2. The positive side of a miracle is expressed in the term 
gebhuroth (mighty deeds), corresponding to the New Testa- 
ment dynameis. Side by side with which there appears the 
more general emphatic expression ma asim, corresponding 
to 'erga in the Gospel of John. According to this, a miracle 
would mainly be a divine act of power, exempt from the com' 
mon course of nature and history. 

3. But the full idea is expressed only by its teleological 
designation as "oth (sign), the semeion of the New Testament, 
according to which its meaning is, an indication of something 
higher and divine ', and so to serve a definite aim. . 

§ 64. More exaet Definition of Miracles. 

The more exact definition of miracles in the more limited 
sense is given by the more exact definition of the aim of mir- 
acles, namely, that miracles serve to reveal God in His King- 
dom. Miracles, in the stricter sense, are extraordinary mani- 
festations and occurrences, in which God makes known His 
power for the purposes of His Kingdom in a unique manner. 
§ 65. Of the Spirit of God. 

God reveals Himself in the heart of man by His Spirit 
(ruach). As the principle of cosmic al life, as ruach Elohim, as 
the mighty divine force of all things, the Spirit is the principle 
of the life of man's soul, and every natural intellectual gift in 
man is traced back to it : Joseph's wisdom, Gen. 41 : 38 ; 
Bezaleel's skill in art, Ex. 31 : 3; 35: 31. From Gen.-6:3 we 
learn that the Spirit of God has also an ethical signification, 
for, according to this passage, the government of God's Spirit 
is hampered by the errors of mankind. 

The Spirit as ruach fehovah only acts within the sphere of 
revelation. In the Old Testament, the Spirit's work in the 
divine kingdom is rather that of endowing the organs of the 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 59 

theocracy with the gifts required for their calling, and these 
gifts of office in the Old Testament are similar to the gifts 
in the New Testament (i Cor. 12). In the Pentateuch its work- 
ing appears exclusively in this connection. The Spirit bestows 
on Moses and the 70 elders skill to guide the people (Num. 
11: 17), also to Joshua (Num. 27 : 18, Deut. 34: 9). As the 
Spirit of revelation, he produces in particular the gift of 
prophecy (Num. 11 : 25) ; and even as ruach Elohim imparts 
ability to prophesy to the heathen Balaam (Num. 24 : 2), by 
which means he is made an organ of the revealing God against 
his will (Num. 22 : 38). 

The Spirit, however, does not appear in the Pentateuch as 
the principle of Sanctification in the pious; this is first spoken 
of in the Psalms (Ps. 51 : 10—12; 143: 10.). 

Now this Spirit is represented as a power proceeding from 
Jehovah, a something communicated by Him, which clings to 
the person to whom it is communicated* (Num. 11 : 17, 25). 

The relation of the Spirit of revelation to the human spirit is 
characterized in a way that makes it clear why a full indwelling 
of the Spirit in man, a penetration of the human spirit by the 
Holy Spirit, is not reached in the Old Testament, but only a 
working on the human mind. 

§ 66. The Psychieal States of the Organs of Revelation. 

As psychical states in which the reception of revelation by 
man takes place, the principal passage (Num. 12 : 6-8) names 
1) the dream; 2) the vision; 3) the immediate sight of the 
Divinity as given to Moses, which stands higher than the other 
two. 

1. Dreams appear in the Old Testament, as in antiquity 
generally, as the vehicle of divine revelation, but only in a 
subordinate way, and as the lowest form of revelation (1 Sam. 
28 : 6 ; Jer. 23 ; 28). 

2. Visions presuppose a previous elevation of the life of the 
soul into an extraordinary state, as is made prominent in the first 

* Though we must not read the New Testament doctrine of the Trinity into the 
Old Testament, it is yet undeniable that we find the way to the doctrine of the 
Trinity already prepared in the doctrine of the Malakh and of the Spirit. 



60 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

narrative in which a vision appears (in Gen. 15, with Abra- 
ham). Still the difference between a dream and a vision 
may be regarded as not sharply marked. By these two forms 
God speaks, as is said in Num. 12:8, only in riddles, that is, in 
a way which requires an explanation of the pictures presented 
to view. 

3. The immediate view of the Divinity (mouth to mouth, 
Num. 12: 8) with which Moses was favored stands higher 
than these forms ; that figureless, perfect, clear communication 
of knowledge, which is to be distinguished also from the vision 
of God in emblematical tokens, spoken in Ex. 24 : 10 ot 
Aaron and the elders of Israel. The principle that a clear 
consciousness when receiving revelation is placed higher than 
ecstasy is of great importance for the right view of the Old 
Testament religion (Num. 12: 6 — 8; 1 Cor. 13: 12). The 
idea that in the case of some persons a view into the future 
opens at the moment of death is expressed in the Old Testa- 
ment in Gen. 49, and Deut. 33, (in the blessings of Jacob and 
Moses). 

Second Division. The Doctrine of Man (§ 67 — 79). 

§ 67. General View. 

First of all, the naticre of man is to be described without 
reference to the contradictory elements which through sin en- 
tered into its development ; and then these contradictory ele- 
ments are to be set forth as they appear in the difference be- 
tween the original perfection of man on the one side, and the 
state of sin and death in which he now is on the other side. 
We have here to do only with the anthropology of Mosaism. 

I. The Nature of Man in its Main Unchangeable Features 
(§68-71). 

§ 68. 1. The Idea of Man. 

The idea of man is expressed in the statement, that he is 
created in the image of God (Gen. 1 : 26, 27 ; 9 : 6). This 
divine image is propagated (Gen. 5 : 1, 3;. The statement in 
Gen. 1 : 26 ("in our image, after our likeness") does not mean 
that the divine image is two-fold, but it rather expresses the 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 61 

thought that the divine image which man bears is really one 
corresponding to the original pattern. 

But now what is to be understood by the divine image, 
i) We are certainly not to think of the human body as if it was 
a copy of the divine form, for Elohim, the creative God, is 
without form. We might rather say, that the human figure 
was to be so formed that it might serve to represent God Him- 
self when He revealed Himself. 2 ) It is equally erroneous to 
limit the divine likeness to the dominion over the animal world, 
as the Socinians did. 3) The divine likeness is rather to be 
referred to the whole dignity of man (Ps. 8 : 5, 6), in virtue ot 
which human nature is sharply distinguished from that of the 
beasts ; man as a free being is set over nature, and desig?ied to 
hold communion with God, and to be his representative on 
earth. 

§ 69. 2. Man in Relation to. Sex and Raee. 

1. The sexual relation of man and zvoma?i is originally or- 
dained in Gen. 1 ; 27 ("male and female created he them"). 
This does not mean that man was originally created andro- 
gynous (a man who was at once man and woman), but that 
man was created first, and the woman afterwards (Gen. 2 : 22); 
as also the passage is understood in 1 Tim. 2 : 13 ; 1 Cor. 
11 : 8, 9. 

2. According to Gen. 2 : iS, 24, marriage, that primitive 
form of human society from which all other lorms of society 
arise, and for which man gives up the others, did not spring 
from the blind sway of natural impulse, but from divine insti- 
tution. 

Its original form is monogamy (compare Matt. 19 : 4 — 6). 
As indicative of character, polygamy is traced to the Cainites 
(Gen. 4 : 19). The law does indeed tolerate polygamy, but 
does not sanction it, and moreover, provides against the 
wrongs that easily spring from it (Ex. 21 : 10; Deut. 21 : 15 
— 17). Bigamy, in the form in which Genesis represents it as 
forced on Jacob, was alterwards expressly forbidden in the law 
(Lev. 18 : 18). In general, monogamy remained predominant 



62 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA, 

among the people of Israel ; in fact, the description of a wife 
in Prov. 12: 4; 19: 14; 31: 10 — 31, and in particular the 
prophetic representation of the covenant between Jehovah and 
His people as marriage, clearly presuppose that monogamy is 
the rule. 

3. All mankind is a connected race of brothers (Act. 1 7 : 26). 
The differences between nations and orders of men do not rest 
on a diversity of physical origin, but upon the law of God, 
who made the nations to differ and set them their boundaries 
(Deut. 32 : 28), and who reveals His retributive ordinances 
even in their natural character (Canaan, Moab, Ammon, etc.). 

3. The Constituent Parts of Man {§ 70, 71.) 

§ 70. Body, Soul, Spirit. 

Man, like all beings endowed with life, originated from two 
elements, 1) from earthly material {ground, dust), and 2) from 
the Divine Spirit (ruach), Gen. 2 :" 7, compared with Ps. 104: 
29, 30; 146 : 4. As in general the soul (nephesh) originates in 
the flesh (Jbasar) by the union of spirit with matter, so in par- 
ticular the human soul arises in the human body by the breath- 
ing of the divine breath into the material frame of the human 
body. The soul, which is common to man and beast, does not 
originate in the same way. The souls of animals arise, like 
plants from the earth, as a consequence of the divine word of 
power, Gen. 1 : 24 ( "let the earth bring forth the living 
nefihesh"). Thus the creating spirit which entered in the be- 
ginning (Gen. 1 : 2) into matter, rules in them. But the 
human soul does not spring from the earth ; it is created by a 
special act of divine inbreathing (Gen. 2: 7 compared with 
Gen. 1 : 26). Thus the substance of the human soul is the 
divine spirit of life muting itself with matter; the soul exists 
and lives only by the power of the spirit (ruach). In the soul, 
which sprang from the spirit, and exists continually through 
it, lies the individuality of man, his personality, his self, his ego; 
because man is not spirit (ruack), but has it — he is soul. Man 
perceives and thinks by virtue of the spirit which animates 
him (Job 32 : 8 ; Prov. 20: 27;, but the perceiving and think- 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 63 

ing subject itself is the soul {nephesli). The impulse to act 
proceeds from the spirit iruach) (Ex. 35; 21), but the acting 
subject is the soul {nephesli) ; the soul is the subject which 
sins (Ezek. 18:4, etc. ). Love and attachment are of course a 
thing of the soul (Gen. 34 : 3, 8). In many cases, however, 
soul and spirit stand indifferently, according as the personality 
is named after its special individual life, or after the living 
power which forms the condition of its special character. ■ 

From all this it is clear that the Old Testament does not 
teach a trichotomy of the human being in the sense of body, 
soul, and spirit, as being orignally three co-ordinate elements 
of man : rather are we to regard the body and spirit of man as 
being of distinct natures, but the soul is of one nature with the 
spirit. The spirit is the inward being of the soul, and the soul 
is the external nature of the spirit. 

In all ages a few passages in the Old Testament have been 
supposed by some to teach a pre-existence of the soul. But no 
such inference can be drawn from the main passages adduced 
for such a doctrine (Ps. 139 : 15 ; Job 1 : 21). 

§ 71. The Heart and its Relation to the Soul. 

The soul of man has a double sphere of life: 

1) It is anima, that on which rests the life belonging to 
the senses, the soul of the flesh in the more limited sense. As 
such it acts in the blood, and supplies life to the body through 
the blood; hence the proposition, "The life (soul) of the flesh 
is in the blood" (Lev. 17 : 11); indeed, it is said directly, 
"The blood is life (soul)," Gen. 9 : 4; Lev. 17: 14; Deut. 
12: 23. 

2) It is not simply anima, the principle of life belonging 
to the senses, but it is at the same time animus, — the subject of 
all the acts of knowing, feeling, and willing, and especially the 
subject of those acts and states of man that refer to his com- 
munion with God (Deut. 4 : 29 ; 6 : 5 ; Isa. 61 : 10 ; Ps. 19:7; 
etc.). 

In both its relations, as anima and animus, the soul centres 
in the heart. The heart, as the central organ of the circulation 



64 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

of the blood ("the pitcher at the fountain," Eccles. 12 : 6), 
forms the focus of the life of the body. But the heart is also 
the centre of all spiritual functions ("keep thy heart with all 
diligence ; for out of it are the issues of life," Prov. 4: 23). In 
particular, the heart is the place in which the process of selj- 
consciousness goes on, in which the soul is at home with itself 
and is conscious of all its doing and suffering as its own 
(Deut. 8:5; Isa. 44: 18 ; etc.). The heart is also the organ 
of the act of knowing in general, so that heart has often exactly 
the meaning of intellect, insight (Job 34 : 10; Jer. 5: 21). 

Now, because the heart is the central point of the person's 
life, the work-place for the personal appropriation and as- 
similation of everything spiritual, the moral and religious con- 
dition of man lies in the heart. Because of this, man is 
characterized by his heart in all his habitual and moral attri- 
butes. We read in Prov. 10 : 8, of a wise heart ; in Ps. 51 : 12, 
of a pure (clean) heart ; etc. So, on the other hand, of a per- 
verse (forward) heart (Ps. 101 : 4) ; of a stubborn and evil 
heart (Jer. 3: 17); etc. Accordingly the human heart is 
characterized in Jer. 17 : 9 as ''deceitful above all things" 
(properly rugged), and "desperately sick," so that God alone 
(but He completely, Prov. 15 : 11) is able to fathom the depths 
of its perverseness ; and hence the prayer in Ps. 139: 23,24. 
Hence all revelation addresses itself to the heart, even the re- 
velation of the law, Deut. 6 : 6 ; for it demands love to God 
from the whole heart, and starting from this centre, also from 
the whole soul (Deut. 11 : 18). The work of revelation is 
directed to renewing man from the heart ; its aim is to cir- 
cumcise the heart (Deut. 30 : 6), — to establish God's will with- 
in the heart (Jer. 31 : 33). 

Also on man's side the process of salvation begins in the 
heart. Faith, in which man's personal life in its deepest basis 
takes a new direction, belongs entirely to the sphere of the 
heart, and is described as a making fast, a making strong (Ps. 
27: 14; 31: 24), a staying of the heart (compare especially 
Ps. 112 : 7, 8) on that foundation which is God, "the Rock of 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 65 

my heart" (Ps. 73 : 26). (Compare the same view in the New 
Testament — for example, Rom. 10 : 9, 10). 

II. The Doctrine of Man in reference to the Contradictory 
Elements which entered by Sin into its Development. (§ 72 — 79). 
§ 72. I. The Primitive State of Man. 

This condition was one of innocence and childlike inter- 
course with God, of harmonious relation to nature ', and, con- 
ditionally, of exemption from death. 

1. Man was created good (Gen. 1 : 31), that is, conformed to 
the divine aim. But this good must be developed into free self- 
determination. \) The conception of the original state as a 
created condition of wisdom and sanctity contradicts the state- 
ment in Genesis ; it would be much more in the sense of the Old 
Testament to say, as Eccl. 7 : 29 expresses it : "God made 
man upright" (right). 2) The view that the original state 
was only an absence of actual sin, in the sense either of a state 
of pure indifference, or a state in which the evil was already 
latent, so that in the Fall the disposition which already existed 
in man only came forth, is equally irreconcilable with Genesis. 

2. In the primitive condition, man lives in undisturbed 
and peaceful union with nature and with God. The latter is 
made especially clear by the contrast implied in Gen. 3 : 8. 
The peaceful relation of man with nature is taught partly in 
the description of life in Paradise in general, and partly in the 
contrast between the present relation of man to nature and his 
condition before sin, since man must now make nature of ser- 
vice to him by toiling and struggling (Gen. 3 : 17, 18 ; 5 : 29), 
and since he exercises his dominion over the animals by deeds 
of violence and destruction of life (Gen. 9 : 2,3 contrasted with 
Gen. 1 : 29). Hence prophecy has depicted the termination of 
this hostile relation in its description of the time of salvation 
(Isa. 11 : 6—8; 65 : 25). 

3. Lastly, in Gen. 2, immortality is ascribed to man, but 
conditionally, in the sense of to be able not to die {posse non mori). 
This idea, indeed, does not necessarily lie in the words of 



66 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Gen. 2 : 17, but it is quite clear from Gen. 3 : 22, that the pos- 
sibility of reaching immortality was annexed to the life in Para- 
dise. Nor on the other hand can we infer from Gen. 3 : 19, 
that by nature man must die ; the words only give the reason 
why the end of man's life, when once decreed, is brought about 
in the manner described as a dissolution of the body. 

II. Of Sin (§73-76). 
1. The Origin of Sin. (§ 73, 74.) 
78. § The Formal Principle of Sin. 

1. Man can pass from the state of innocence into the pos- 
session of moral character only by an act of self-determination. 
Sin is not a necessary factor in the development of man, but a 
product of free choice. 

2. The first incitement to transgress the command oi God 
came from without. The account of the Fall presupposes an 
ungodly principle which had already entered the world, but 
does not give any further account of it. (The New Testament 
teaches that the seduction of the first man is the work of 
Satan, especially in Rev. 12: 9, where the devil is called the 
dragon^ the old serpent; compare also the allusion in Rom. 
16 : 20 to Gen. 3 : 15). 

% 74. The Material Principle of Sin. The Old Testament Names of Sin. 

The real principle of sin, is, according to the Old Testa- 
ment, 1) unbelief of the divine word, 2) the selfish elevation of 
self-will above the divine will, and 3) the presumptuous tramp- 
ling upon the limits set by divine command. 

Gen. 3 disproves the doctrine, that according to the Old 
Testament, the real principle of evil lies in matter, in the body. 
It is a fundamental doctrine of the Old Testament that evil is 
originally the denial of the divine will ; that sin is sin because 
man selfishly exalts himself above God and His will. 

The following are the most common Old Testament desig- 
nations for Sin: 

1) Chata (first in Gen. 4: 7), a missing, a deviation from 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 67 

the divine way and goal prescribed for man by the divine will. 
It comprehends sins of weakness as well as sins of wickedness. 

2) Avon, crookedness, perversion, primarily referring to 
the character of an action. It is the perversion of the divine 
law (anomia); then especially the guilt of sin, first in Gen. 
15: 16 (iniquity). See Ps. 32 : 5. 

3) Pesha, sin in its intensification, apostasy, rebellion 
against God. Design and set purpose to sin are always im- 
plied in this word. Chief passage Job 34 : 37. 

4) Resha, the evil which has become an habitual feature 
of the disposition and of the actions. A stormy excitement of 
the underlying thought. 

5) Aven, evil as in itself empty and worthless. 

2. The State of Sin (§ 75, 76.) 

§ 75. Sin as an Inclination. Transmission of Sin. 

In consequence of the Fall, sin appears as a state in man- 
kind, that is, as an inclination which rules man, and as a com- 
mon sinful life which is transmitted partly in mankind in gen- 
eral, and partly in an especial degree in particular races. 

1. The second sin, that of self-excuse and palliation of the 
offence, follows immediately on the first, the sin of disobedience 
(Gen. 3: 10). As sin thus joins to sin, it becomes a habitus, 
and in this way a definite feature of the heart {imagi?iation of 
the heart, Gen. 8 : 21), an inclination, which gives a perverted 
tendency to man's will (Gen. 6:5). Because this sinful incli- 
nation (this is the meaning of the variously explained passage 
Gen. 8:21) cleaves to man from his youth, the human race 
would lie under a continual sentence of destruction if God gave 
severe justice its course. 

2. That this sinful inclination is hereditary is indirectly 
contained in the passages cited, although it is not expressly 
said. Ps. 51 : 5, "Behold, I was shapen in iniquity; and in sin 
did my mother conceive me," directly says that evil is in- 
grown in man from the first moment of his origin,- — for the ex- 
planation that here reference is only to the iniquity and sin of 



68 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

the parents, is untenable. So that even the newly born child 
is not free from sin, or as Job 14 : 4 expresses it, "Who can 
bring a clean thing out of an unclean? not one." 

This transmission of sin takes place with special intensity 
in certain races, especially those that have fallen under the 
divine curse. This is implied in the history of the Cainites 
(Gen. 4) ; of Ham, and especially Canaan (Gen. 9 : 25 on- 
ward) ; of Moab and Ammon (Gen. 19 : 36 onward); and this 
is especially expressed in the repeated declaration that God 
visits the sins of the fathers on the third and fourth generation 
(Ex.20: 5; 34: 7; Num.14: 18; Deut. 5: 9). 

§ 76. Antagonism of the Good and the Evil in Man. Degrees of Sin. 
Possibility of a Relative Righteousness. 

According to the Old Testament, the condition of man in 
consequence of the Fall is not that of an absolute subjection to 
sin, which destroys the power of resistance, but it is an antag- 
onism between man's susceptibility to the good and the power 
of sin. In Gen. 4 : 6, 7 are expressed the possibility and the 
duty of resisting the sinful inclination. According as men 
seek or do not seek to rule over sin, there arises a difference 
of relation to God and a difference in the degree of sinfulness. 

The Old Testament calls the highest degree of sin obduracy, 
or hardening of the heart. This is the condition in which a 
man, by continually cherishing sin, has lost the ability to with- 
stand it ; and it is added, that God can glorify Himself on such 
a one only by punishment. For it is God's ordinance, that as 
the power to do good grows by its exercise, so also sin is pun- 
ished by continued sinning (Ps. 81 : 11, 12). This hardening 
is both a divine act and at the same time the sinner's own act, 
so that the two expressions are interchangeable (compare Ex. 
7 : 3 with 8 : 15, 28; etc.). In the first case, hardening is the 
effect of the divine wrath (Isa. 64: 5). We must here note as 
essential, that the Old Testament (like the New) always speaks 
of hardening only in connection with a divine revelation 
offered to the sinner, but rejected by him. This is applicable 
to Pharaoh, who sees the miracles of Moses, but whose "heart 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 69 

was hardened" (Ex. 8: 19). In such passages the point is not 
(as understood by Calvinists) a dark and hidden decree of re- 
probation, but a divine decree of judgment, well-grounded and 
perfectly manifest. 

The course ot hardening is described in Isa. 6 : 10 ; in- 
capability to hear the divine word and to see God's ways con- 
nects itself with dullness of heart, and this again reacts on the 
heart so that its insusceptibility becomes incurable. 

On the other hand, in the midst of the sinful world, a 
righteousness is attained by a cheerful resignation to the divine 
will, and by the loyalty with which a man accepts the witness 
of God, given to him in accordance with the then stage ot 
revelation. But the Old Testament knows nothing of 
absolutely righteous arsons (1 Kings 8 : 46; Ps. 143: 2; Isa. 
43: 27; Prov. 20: 9; Eccles. 7 : 20). The Mosaic law attests 
this by excepting none from the need of atonement. 

III. On Death and State after Death. (§ 77 — 79). 

§ 77. The Connection between Sin and Death. 

The consequence of sin is death. This is positively ex- 
pressed in Gen. 2 : 17. The issue of the punishment is at once 
placed foremost in the threat, as is generally the case in pro- 
phetical announcements. There is no difficulty here from the 
fact that death did not really follow immediately after the Fall, 
as in reality, man entered on the path of death immediately on 
the commission of sin. 

The punishment of death is connected with disobedience, not 
with the effect of the fruit of the tree as many expositors infer 
from the contrast in Gen. 3: 22. The intimate connection ot 
sin and death is clear from Gen. 6 : 3, though this passage 
primarily treats only of the shortening of the length of life 
through sin. According to this passage (the marginal trans- 
lation of the Revised Version is to be preferred "in their going 
astray they are flesh"), the divine spirit of life which supports 
man is enfeebled by sin, and thus man's vital strength is de- 
stroyed ; while, as Isaiah (63 : 10) expresses himself, the Spirit 



70 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

of God is grieved by sin ; it is also repressed as to the phys- 
ical principle of life, and thus man is subject to mortality. 

§ 78. The Doctrine of Mosaism on the Condition after Death. 
Death takes place when the divine spirit of life which sus- 
tains man is withdrawn by God (Ps. 104 : 29), by which means 
man expires (Gen. 7 : 21, 22), upon which the body returns to 
the dust from whence it was taken (Job 34: 14, 15; Eccles. 
12: 7 compared with 8: 8). From the whole connection of 
Old Testament doctrine, it is clear that as the origin so also the 
final desti?iy of man's soul is different from that of the soul of 
an animal (with which it seems to be identified in Ps. 104: 29), 
and that, when the sustaining spirit of life is withdrawn, 
although the band by which the nephesh (soul) is bound to the 
body is loosed, the soul itself, and man, so far as his person- 
ality lies in the soul, continues to exist ; yet, he exists only as 
a weak shadow, which wandeis into the kingdom of the dead 
(Sheol). Man's existence after death is treated in the Old 
Testament so much as a matter of course, that the reality of it 
is never the subject of doubt. The doubts with which the 
Israelitish spirit wrestled referred only to the how of existence 
after death. It is the nephesh (soul) which wanders into the 
kingdom of the dead (Ps. 16: 10; 30: 3; 86: 13; 89: 48; 
etc.) ; so also it is the nephesh which returns again to the body 
of the dead child on being restored to life (1 Kings 17: 21, 
22). Oehler adduces the narratives of resurrection from the 
dead (1 Kings 17: 21, 22 ; 2 Kings 4: 34, 35) as proofs that a 
close connection between the body just quitted and the soul 
still subsists immediately after death, but maintains on the 
other hand, that there is no trace in the Old Testament of the 
Egyptian notion that a continual connection subsists between 
the soul and body, in virtue of which the preservation of the 
body secures the continuance of the soul. 

The place into which man migrates ("the house appointed 
for all living," Job 30: 23), is called SheoL The word (from 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 71 

shaal, to ask) characterizes the kingdom of the dead as that 
which is insatiable in its demands. 

The following essential features of the conception of Sheol 
are distinctly presented in the Old Testament : 

The kingdom of the dead is supposed to be in the depths 
(Ps. 86 : 13) of the earth (Ps. 63: 10), deeper even than the 
waters and their inhabitants (Ezek. 26: 20; 31: 14; 32: 18). 
It agrees with this, that it is a region of thickest darkness ; 
"where the light is as darkness" (Job. 10: 22). The dead are 
there gathered in tribes ("gathered to his people," Gen. 25 : 8 ; 
35 : 29 ; compare the picture of Sheol in Ezek. 32 : 17 — 32). 

These terms cannot possibly be referred to the grave. The 
kingdom of the dead and the grave are, on the contrary ', 
definitely distinguished. 

The condition of men in the realm of death is represented 
as the privation of all that belongs to life in the full sense; and 
so the realm of death is called simply Abaddon, that is, 
destruction (Job 26: 6; Prov. 15; 11; 27: 20). Without 
strength, dull, and like men in slumber, the dead rest in silence 
(Ps. 94: 17 ; 115 : 17). Sheol is the land of forgetfulness (Ps. 
88: 12). "There is no work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor 
wisdom, in Sheol, whither thou goest" (Eccles. 9 : 10), (Com- 
pare Eccles. 9 : 5, 6). With all this, however, their con- 
sciousness is not destroyed; their personal identity continues 
(compare such passages as Isa. 14: 9, 10; Ezek. 32: 21 ; 1 
Sam. 28 : 15, 16). It is not possible to ascend or return from 
the realm of the dead (Job 7: 9; 14: 12). (The Old Testa- 
ment relates only one example of the appearing of a dead per- 
son, Samuel, 1 Sam. 28. This narrative is not to be explained 
as if we had here a record of a mere deception, as the older 
theologians interpreted it). 

§ 79. Continuation. 

In no part of the Old Testament is a difference in the lot 
of those in the realm of death distinctly spoken of, only in Isa. 
14: 15; Ezek. 32: 23, where the fallen conquerors are rele- 



72 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA, 

gated to the uttermost depths, can we find an indication of 
different grades in the realm of the dead. Elsewhere, only a 
division into peoples and races, and not a division of the just 
and unjust, is spoken of. In itself, the condition in Sheol, 
which is in the main the most indefinite existence possible, is 
neither blessedness nor positive unblessedness. 

Of the traces of belief in a heavenly life beyond the grave 
which have been supposed to be found in the Pentateuch, the 
translation of Enoch (Gen. 5 : 24) can alone come into con- 
sideration. But that is not a testimony to a higher existence 
of the soul after death; for the meaning of the passage is that 
Enoch never died,— that is, his body and soul were never 
separated. In it, as in the history of Elijah's translation (2 
Kings 2), there lies rather the declaration, that even before the 
coming of death's vanquisher some specially favored men were 
excepted from the curse of death and of the kingdom of death 
which hangs over man. 

But it is clearly expressed in the Pentateuch that the re- 
lation of the righteous to God is not cancelled after death. The 
relation into which God entered with the patriarchs continues 
(Ex.3: 6 compared with Gen. 26: 24; 28: 13;. Compare 
Matt. 22 : 32. 

Third Division. The Covenant of God with Israel and 
the Theocracy. (§ 80 — 156). 

I. The Nature of the Covenant. (§ 80—90). 

§ 80. Preliminary Remarks and General Survey. 

The form in which the Covenant of God with Israel is made 
(Ex. 19 — 24), is a cojitract resting on the promises and engage- 
ments of the two contracting parties (Ex. 19: 5, 8 ; 24: 3, 7). 
Yet the relation of the parties is not purely mutual. It is 
Jehovah alone who fixes the conditions of the covenant (Lev. 
11 : 44, 45), and on whom depend the maintenance of the 
regulations of the treaty and the final realization of the aim of 
the covenant. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 73 

According to its nature, the covenant presents itself under 
the following heads : 

i. The divine act, from which the convenant proceeds, 
viz., the divine election, and the promise annexed to it. 

2. Man's obligation. He who prescribes the obligation is 
God; that to which man is bound, is the revelation of the 
divine will in the law, especially the Decalogue, which is the 
obligatory document in the stricter sense ; but the symbol of 
obligation is in particular the sign of circumcision, imposed on 
those who are subject to the covenant obligations. 

3. Thus, according as the nation performs its obligation, 
the divine retribution is determined, which, however, is so 
carried out that at the end the divine purpose of election must 
come to be realized. 

First Doctrine. The Divine Election. (§ 81, 82). 

§ 81. Israel's Election as the Free Act of God's Love. 

The adoption of Israel as the covenant people is a free act 
of God, or in other words, an act of divine love, and necessary 
only so far as God has bound Himself by His oath, — that is, a 
proof of His truth and faithfulness — but is in no way dependent 
on man's desert. These propositions are expressly inculcated 
on the people at every opportunity. It is only on this ground 
that the divine commands to the people are given, and there- 
fore the Decalogue (Ex. 20 : 2) places at its forefront the fact 
of election. 

The divine promise is sealed by the oath of God, which is 
given whenever the matter in question is an unchangeable 
decree, the performance of which is not to depend on contin- 
gencies (Heb. 6 : 17). 

§ 82. Forms in which the Election of the People is expressed. 
The divine election of the people is expressed in the follow- 
ing forms : Jehovah is the Father of His people; Israelis His 
first-born son ; His property out of all the nations of the earth ; 
the holy, priestly people. All these ideas are correlated. 



74 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

1. In the Old Testament the divine Fatherhood has an 
ethical meaning. It denotes the relation of love and moral 
communion in which Jehovah has placed Israel to Himself. 
This relation is quite unique; Jehovah is only the Father of the 
chosen people, not the Father of the other nations CEx. 4 : 22, 
23; Deut. 32: 6). 

The fatherhood of Jehovah was displayed in the deliver- 
ance of the people from Egypt (Hos. 11: 1) ; then in the divine 
guidance through the wilderness, which was a fatherly dis- 
cipline (Deut. 8:5; Hos. 11: 3) ; and so likewise all sub- 
sequent redemption and providential guidance of Israel is a 
manifestation of the divine fatherhood (Isa. 63: 16). 

2. The same relation between Israel and God which 
rests on the divine election is expressed in the appellations — 
people of God 's possession, a holy people (Deut. 14 : 1,2). The 
phrase holy people (see § 44) conveys negatively the idea 01 
separation from all other people, and positively of admission 
or introduction into communion with God (Ex. 19: 4). In 
virtue of this attitude to God, Israel is a priestly people. (Ex. 
19: 6). Vocation to the immediate service of the true God is 
the main idea in the priestly character of the covenant people. 
God sanctifies the people to Himself positively by dwelling 
among them, by His revelation in word and deed, by every in- 
stitution on which is imprinted the unique relation between 
Israel and God, and finally, by placing His Spirit in the con- 
gregation. 

3. The other nations form a great profane mass. Still, even 
from the standpoint of Mosaism, the theocratic exclusiveness is 
not absolutely exclusive; for, every heathen, dwelling as a 
stranger in the land, could by circumcision become incorporated 
among the covenant people, and thus receive a share of all the 
gracious benefits bestowed on Israel (Ex. 12: 48); with the 
exception, however, of the Canaanitish tribes, the Moabites and 
Ammonites (Deut. 23 . 4, 5). 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 75 

Second Doctrine. Man's Obligation. (§ 83 — 88). 

% 83. The Servant of Jehovah. 

The covenant of promise with Abraham was made upon 
the condition that he and his descendants bind themselves to a 
godly life and to obedience to God's will (Gen. 17: 1, 2; 
18: 19). The same condition is prescribed to the people (Ex. 
19: 5), and accepted by the people (Ex. 19: 8; 24: 3). Laid 
under this obligation to their God, the Israelites are the ser- 
vants of Jehovah, whom He has purchased by redeeming from 
Egyptian bondage, and who, therefore, are exempt from all 
earthly lordship by being bound to the service of God (Lev. 
25: 42, 55; 26: 13). 

§ 84. The Law. 

The compass of the people's obligations is the law, the 
fundamental principle of which is expressed in the words, 
"Sanctify yourselves, and be ye holy : for I am Jehovah your 
God (Lev. 20 : 7). 

The traditional division of the law of Moses into moral, 
ceremonial, and forensic laws may serve to facilitate a general 
view of theocratic ordinances. 

The law of Moses, however, does not demand only external 
conformity to the law, a mere legality and not morality. On 
the contrary, the law insists on the disposition of the heart, 
when it says. "Thou shalt not covet" (Ex. 20; 17). It 
demands the external as co-ordinate with the internal. And 
precisely in this lies an important educating element. 

For a right estimate of the law of Moses, the following 
points have further to be noticed: 

1. The whole ritual ordinances to which the Israelite is 
subject, from his circumcision onward, have a symbolic char- 
acter, mirrowing the inner process of sanctification, and so 
forming the instrument of tuition advancing from the outer to 
the inner man. 



76 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

2. The precepts of the law are given in detail mainly on 
the negative side* 

3. Finally, — and this is the main point, — we have to look 
at the motives for fulfilling- the law which the law presents. 

§ 85. The Decalogue. Its Division. 

The Decalogue ("the ten words," Ex. 34 : 28; Deut. 4: 13; 
10: 4) stands at the beginning (Ex. 20: 2 — 17) of the book of 
the covenant (Ex. 20 — 23). See Ex. 24: 7. It was written on 
two tables of stone, which, according to Ex. 32: 15, were in- 
scribed on both sides. The Decalogue is again given in Deut. 
5: 6—21. 

Of the division of the Decalogue there have long been 
various views. The main schemes of division are three, dis- 
tinguished by the way in which they take the first and last 
commandment. 

1. The first scheme became prevalent in the Roman 
Catholic Church under the influnence of Augustine, and has 
been retained by the Lutheran Church, and in recent times 
defended by Kurtz and others. It includes in the first com- 
mandment Ex. 20 : 2 — 6, Deut. 5 : 6 — 10. The ninth is gen- 
erally taken according to the text of Exodus, "Thou shalt not 
covet thy neighbor's house; the tenth, "Thou shalt not covet 
thy neighbor's wife" etc. Augustine himself, on the contrary, 
in the main passage in which he treats of this subject, holds to 
the text of Deuteronomy for the ninth and tenth command- 
ments, and Kurtz emends the text of Exodus by the aid of 
Deuteronomy. 

2. The second and third schemes of division agree in making 
the whole prohibition of concupiscence a single commandment 
{the tenth), but they differ as to the first and second commandment. 
According to the view now common among the Jews, — which, 
however, seems to rest on no very ancient tradition, — the first 
commandment, comprises only Ex. 20 : 2. This, they say, 
implies the obligation to believe on God as the most perfect 

* The scholastic subtlety of the Rabbins, indeed, has made out the considerable 
number of 248 positive commands, against 365 prohibitions. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 77 

being-. The second commandment (Ex. 20: 3 — 6) then in- 
cludes the obligation to believe on God's unity and the prohi- 
bition of false worship. 

3. The third scheme, accepted by the Greek and Re- 
formed Churches, and by the Socinians, makes Ex. 20: 3 the 
^/commandment; and Ex. 20: 4 — 6, the second. Oehler 
thinks it more probable that verses 2 — 6 are to be divided, and 
that the prohibition of concupiscence should not be divided. 

The Hebrew accentuation of the Decalogue is two-fold — 
the one accentuation giving the usual Masoretic division into 
verses, the other regulating the intonation in the Synagogue. 
The latter takes verses 2 — 6 together, showing that these five 
verses were viewed as closely connected. It is also certain 
that verses 2 — 6 formed only one parasha in the Hebrew 
Bible, and these small parashas are so old that this cannot be 
due to Christian influence. This is a strong exteryial argument 
for the Romish and Lutheran division of the commandments. 

§ 86. Continuation of the Decalogue. 

The Old Testament does not expressly tell us how the com- 
mandments were divided between the two tables. Three views 
have generally been held : 

1. The arrangement assumed by Philo and Josephus, and 
accepted by Oehler, in which five precepts are assigned to each 
table. 

2. The view of Calvin, followed by the Reformed Church, 
in which four precepts are assigned to the first table, and six, 
commencing with the command to honor parents, to the sec- 
ond. 

3. The followers of the Augustinian division (the Roman 
Catholic and Lutheran Churches) generally agree in beginning 
the second table with the commandment to honor parents, 
assigning three commandments to the first table and seven to 
the second, a division which has also this in its favor that it 
makes the writing on each table nearly equal in amount. On 



78 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

this view the number three has been associated with the 
Trinity, and it is urged that seven in the second table is a holy 
number. 

The definite and rounded character of the Decalogue is a 
decisive proof that it retains its original form. 

§ 87. Cireumeision. Its Historical Origin. 

The main sign of the covenant is circumcision (Gen. 17 : 11), 
which is the constant symbol of covenant obligations, and of 
consequent covenant rights. It was prescribed not only for 
Israelites by birth, but also for all who were received into the 
house as slaves (Gen. 17: 12 — 27 compared with Ex. 12: 44 — 
48). On new-born boys it was performed on the eighth day 
(Gen. 17: 12; Lev. 12: 3). 

The historical origin and the religious import of circum- 
cision must be carefully distinguished. It is quite possible that 
the rite was customary in other tribes before it was introduced 
in the race of Abraham. But this does not justify the infer- 
ence that the sigjiificance of circumcision in the Old Testament 
must be explained from heathenism. 

§ 88. Religious Import of Cireumeision in the Old Testament. The 
Giving of a Name. 

Circumcision obviously presupposes that the natural life is 
tainted by impurity, which must be removed in those who are 
called to covenant fellowship with God. It may be named, with 
Ewald, "the offering of the bodv"; and this is carried out in a way 
that shall declare the propagation of the race of revelation to be 
consecrated to God. Circumcision is essentially distinguished 
from Christian baptism by not constituting an immediate, per- 
sonal relation between God and the recipient of the ordinance. 
It does not operate as an individual means of grace. Circum- 
cision is no vehicle of sanctifying forces, as it makes no 
demand in reference to the internal state of the recipient. The 
rite effects admission to the fellowship of the covenant people 
as an opus operatum, securing to the individual as a member 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 79 

of the nation his share in the promises and saving benefits 
granted to the nation as a whole. On the other hand, circum- 
cision certainly makes ethical demands on him who has re- 
ceived it. It binds him to obedience to God, whose covenant 
sign he bears in his body and to a blameless walk before Him 
(Gen. 17 : i). Thus it is the symbol of the renewal and purifi 
cation of heart. 

With circumcision was combined the naming of the child, 
which although it is first expressly mentioned in Luke i ; 59 ; 
2 :2i, is clearly indicated by the connection of Gen. 17:5 with 
what follows, and Gen. 21 : 3, 4. How frequently the giving 
of a name was in Israel an act of religious confession, is seen 
in the meanings of numerous biblical proper names. A re- 
ligious consecration for girls is neither presented at the insti- 
tution of circumcision, nor at a later date. This agrees with 
the dependent position of woman, who has a part in national 
and covenant life only as the partner of man — as wife and 
mother. Girls are said to have been named when weaned. 

Third Doetrine. Divine Retribution. (§ 89, 90). 

§ 89. Blessing and Curse. 

As the people bound themselves when the covenant was 
concluded to observe the law, so Jehovah on His part binds 
Himself to fulfil to the nation, so long as it observes its obli- 
gations, all the promises He makes, and to grant it the fulness 
of His blessing ; but in the opposite case, to execute on the 
people the punishment of a breach of covenant (Lev. 26: 23, 
24; Deut. 32: 21; Ps. 18: 26, 27). 

The divine blessing in a single word is Life (Deut. 30 : 15, 
16). Life embraces all the good things that pertain to earthly 
prosperity : long life (Deut. 4 : 40), children, fertility of the 
soil, victory over enemies (Lev. 26 : 3, 4 ; Deut. 28 : 1 — 14). 
But the earthly good things form a state of felicity only when 
the possession of them is united with the experience of the 
gracious presence of the covenant God, so that they are pledges 
of His favor. 



80 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

On the other hand, the result of the breaking of the covenant 
on the part of the people issues in the withdrawal of all these 
blessings, shortening of life, childlessness, scarcity and famine, 
— that Israel may know that it possesses all natural blessings 
only as a gift of God (Hos. 2 : 8—12) ; also political misfortune, 
and defeat by foes. Four judicial plagues are prominently 
mentioned in Ezek. 14: 21 and other passages, — the sword, 
famine, wild beasts, and pestilence. 

§ 90. Solution of the Apparent Contradiction between Divine Election and 
the Mosaic Doctrine of Retribution. 

But if Israel by breaking the covenant is exposed to God's 
judgment and rejected, this seems to nullify God's decree of 
election and the realization of the aim of His kingdom, which, 
though secured by God's covenant oath, is again dependent 
on man's action. But to this difficulty Mosaism provides an 
answer. God's compassionate love is higher than His penal 
justice (Ex. 34: 6, 7). God's faithfulness cannot be broken 
by man's faithlessness. His judgments have a fixed end, and 
therefore are always in measure, as is taught in the beautiful 
parable in Isa. 28 : 23 — 29. Israel is not annihilated in the 
judgment; even in banishment, in dispersion among the 
nations, it must not coalesce with them, but be preserved as a 
separate nation for the fulfilment of its vocation. According 
to Deut. 30: 1 — 6, the final restoration of the people is an act 
of God, but it is effected by ethical means, through the con- 
version of the people, for the order of God's kingdom excludes 
all magical means. Thus, in spite of man's sin and faithless- 
ness, the realization of the divine decree of election, the per- 
fecting of the people of God, is firmly based in God's faithful- 
ness and mercy (Rom. 1 1 ; 25 — 36). 

II. The Theocracy. (§91 — 156). 
§ 91. The Idea of the Divine Kingship. 

The form of government in the commonwealth founded by 
Moses is the government of God — the theocracy. Jehovah is the 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 81 

King of Israel. The Old Testament idea of the divine king- 
ship expresses, not God's general relation of power toward the 
world (as being its creator and preserver), but the special re- 
lation of His government toward His elect people. The real 
beginning of His kingly rule was on that day on which He 
bound the tribes of Israel into a community by the promul- 
gation of the law and the forming of the legal covenant : "And 
He was King in Jeshurun" (Deut. 33 : 5). (It is wrong to take 
Moses for the subject). Although Jehovah has been the King 
of His people in all ages (Ps. 74: 12), He will not become the 
King of the nations until a future time, when He comes in the 
last revelation of His Kingdom. As King, He is the Law- 
giver and Judge of His people (Isa. 33 : 22). As King, God 
is also the leader of His people \? army. Israel forms the hosts 
of Jehovah (Ex. 12: 41 ). 

First Doctrine. The Theocratic Organism, and the Ordi- 
nances of Law and Justice connected therewith. (§ 92 — 111). 
I. Theocratic Organization of the People. (§ 92 — 96). 

§ 92. The Division into Tribes. Israel's Representation before 
Jehovah. 

Although Levi received no special tribal territory, the 
number twelve still remains for all political relations, and 
wherever Levi is numbered, the two tribes of Joseph appear as 
only one. This number twelve is so entirely identified with 
the normal state of the theocracy, that it continues to be the 
signature of God's people even in prophecy. In the New 
Testament, too, the twelve tribes continue to be the type of 
the covenant people (Acts 26 : 7 ; Rev. 7 : 4 — 8), to which the 
number of the apostles corresponds. 

These twelve tribes together form the priestly kingdom 
(Ex. 19: 6). On account of their uncleanness and sinfulness 
the congregation are able to draw near to God only by means 
of a propitiation. A whole series of institutions is directed to 
such propitiation ; but this thought is pre-eminently expressed 



82 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

by the introduction of a representative body between Jehovah 
and the people. There are three grades in the representation 
of the people before Jehovah: i) Levi as a tribe appears in a 
mediatorial position between Jehovah and the people (Ex. 
32 : 26 — 30) ; 2) the race of Aaron rises from its midst with a 
specific priestly prerogative (Ex. 28 : 1 ; Num. 18: 7); 3) the 
office of high priest which is the culmination of the priesthood. 
1. The Levites. (§ 93, 94). 

§ 93. The Mode and Meaning of the Representation of Israel by the 
Levites. 

We are told, in Ex. 13, that from the night in which Israel, 
was redeemed all the first-born males among man and beast 
were dedicated to Jehovah. But instead of all the first born 
sons then living from a month old and upward, He accepts 
the Levites as a standing gift of the people (Num. 8: 16); and 
instead of the people's cattle, he takes the cattle of the Levites 
(Num.3: 11 — 13). (Since the number of first-born sons in 
the nation amounts to 22,263, an d the number of the Levites, 
on the contrary, only to 22,000, the over-plus is compensated 
by a fine of five shekels apiece, to be paid to Aaron and his 
sons (Num. 3: 43—51). 

The Levites were thus, 1) the living sacrifice by which the 
people rendered payment to Jehovah for owing their existence 
to Him; and 2) since the Levites, in consequence of this, per- 
formed in the sanctuary the service which the people ought to 
have rendered through their first-born, but could not on ac- 
count of their uncleanness (Num. 18: 22, 23), they serve, in 
their substitution, as a covering or an atonement also for the 
people who come near to the sanctuary (Num. 8 : 19). 

§ 94. Official Functions, Dedication, and Social Position of the Levites. 
The official functions of the Levites are definitely dis- 
tinguished from those of the priests. The charge "of every- 
thing of the altar, and of that within the veil" (Num. 18: 7), 
falls exclusively to the priests. On the contrary, the service oi 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 83 

the Levites is called the service of Jehovah's tabernacle, or of 
the tent of meeting (Num. i: 53; 16: 9; 18: 4), and was or- 
ganized in a military manner. During the wandering in the 
wilderness, the Levites had the charge of the taking down, carry- 
ing and setting up of the holy tabernacle (Num. 1 : 50 — 53) ; 
also of the carrying of the sacred furniture, particularly the ark 
of the covenant (Deut. 10: 8; 31: 25). The division of these 
duties among the three Levitical families is given in Num. 
3: 25 — 37; 4: 1 — 49. But the functions mentioned in the 
book of Numbers refer only to the time of the people's wand- 
ering. There are no directions in the Pentateuch concerning 
the services of the Levites during the settlement of the people 
in the Holy Land. 

The act of the consecration of the Levites is described in 
Num. 8: 5 — 22. The purification falls into three parts (Num. 
8: 7): 1) sprinkling; 2) shaving; 3) washing of clothes. 
Their presentation before the Lord is divided into the follow- 
ing ceremonies: 1) the laying on of hands ; 2) the wave offer- 
ing*' 3) the sin-offering; 4) the burnt- offering (Num. 8: 10 

-12). 

In order that the tribe of Levi might give itsell completely 
to its sacred vocation, no inheritance as a tribe was assigned to 
it (Num. 18: 23). The tribe is scattered among all the other 
tribes, in the territories of which it received 48 towns with their 
suburbs for pasturages (Num. 35: 6, 7), of which six are ap- 
pointed to be cities of refuge. In this law, moreover, the 
priests are included along with the Levites. The 13 special 
towns for the priests are first mentioned in Josh. 21 : 4. The 
tithes were assigned to them for their support, which, more- 
over was not an over- abundant endowment, so that the tribe of 
Levi was often subjected to unavoidable poverty, (Deut. 
12: 19; 14: 27,29). 

§ 95. 2. The Priesthood. 
The design of the priestly vocation is 1) to represent the 



84 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

nation as a holy congregation before Jehovah, with full divine 
authority (Deut. 18 : 5), and to open up for it access to its God. 
In the functions of his office the priest is the medium of the in- 
tercourse which takes place in worship between Jehovah and 
the congregation, and which, on account of the sinfulness of 
the congregation, becomes a service of atonement. Besides 
this mediatorial calling, the priest has 2) the office of teacher 
and interpreter of the law (Lev. 10: 11), in which respect he 
has to accomplish a divine mission to the people. The two 
sides of the priestly calling are embraced together in Deut. 

33 : IO - 

The divine calling to the priesthood is connected with the 

natural propagation of Aaron's family. 

The holiness of the priesthood was to be reflected in the 
whole appearance of the priests, which was to suggest the 
highest purity and exclusive devotion to God. To this refer 
all the provisions as to the bodily condition and regulation of 
life of the priests. The law treats of the bodily condition of 
the priests in Lev. 21 : 16 — 24. The provisions for the regula- 
tion of the life are given in Lev. 21 : 1 — 9. Propriety and 
order must rule in the priest's family (Lev. 21: 9). Dietetic 
directions are given in Lev. 10 : 9, 10 ; 22 : 8. It is supposed 
that the rule concerning the age of the Levites (30 — 50, Num. 
4 : 3> 2 3' 3°) ne ld good of the priests also. 

The consecration of the priests is prescribed in Ex. 29 : 1 — 
37. The consecration consists of two classes of acts: 

1. The real consecration of the person to the priestly 
office in three acts: 1) washing, a symbol of spiritual cleans- 
ing; 2) robing, consisting in putting on four articles of dress 
(Ex. 28: 40 — 42) of fine, shining white linen (Ex. 28: 39), as a 
symbol of purity; 3) the priestly anointing, a symbol of the 
communication of the Divine Spirit which operates in the 
priestly office. 

2. A three- fold offering, by which the persons thus con 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 85 

secrated were put into all the functions and rights of the priest- 
hood: i) the sin offering (Lev. 8: 14, 15); 2) the burnt-offer- 
ing; 3) a modified thank offering (Lev. 8: 22 — 28), which last 
was the specific sacrifice for the consecration of the priests. 
(Blood was sprinkled upon the ear of the priest, because he 
must at all times hearken to the holy voice of God; upon the 
hand, because he must execute God's commands, and especially- 
priestly functions ; upon the foot, because he must walk rightly 
and holily). The conclusion of the festival is the sacrificial 
meal. The duration of the consecration is fixed at seven days 
(Ex. 29 : 35 — 37). Although the priestly service demands 
only outward purity and perfection, still the real subjective 
qualification for the priesthood lies in undivided devotion to God 
(Lev. 10 : 3). 

For their maintenance the priests received as dwelling 
places 13 of the towns which were given to the Levites (Josh. 
21 : 4), and the Levites had to give them tithes of their tithes, 
and they received the gifts of the first fruits, and certain parts 
of the offerings. 

§ 96. 3. The High Priest. 

In the high priest (Lev. 21 : 10) are united the mediator- 
ship by which the people are represented before God, and the 
official priestly sanctity by which they are reconciled. He is 
said to bear the iniquity of the holy things (Ex. 28 : 38). Thus 
the whole reconciling and sanctifying effect of the sacrifices is 
dependent on the existence of a personally reconciling medi- 
atorship before God ; and here the Old Covenant proclaims 
its inadequacy to effect a true reconciliation, in the fact that 
even the high priest himself has need of reconciliation and 
purification by the blood of sacrifices, as one subject to sin and 
weakness (compare Heb, 5:3). 

As the "holy one of Jehovah" (Ps. 106 : 16) he must 
awaken, by his whole appearance, an impression of the highest 
purity and exclusive devotion to God. To this end are 



86 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

directed i ) all the regulations in regard to his personal con- 
dition and mode of life, which in respect to descent and bodily- 
constitution do not differ from that of the other priests. 
2) The rules, however, in Lev. 21: 10 — 15, in regard to the 
ordering of his life, relate exclusively to the high priest. 

The high priest's consecration to his office differed from 
that of the common priests with reference to the robing and 
anointing. On his robing, see Ex 29 : 5 — 9 ; Num. 20 : 26 — 
28 (in this latter passage we see that the transference of the 
office of high priest from Aaron to Eleazar took place by the 
transference of the ornaments of office). Without the orna- 
ments of his office, the high priest is simply a private indi- 
vidual, who, as such, cannot intercede for the people ; there- 
fore he is threatened with death, if he appear before Jehovah 
without them. The description of the high priest's official 
garments is given in Ex. 28 and 39. 

This dress of office has received very various symbolic in- 
terpretations. The symbolic meaning of the Ephod and the 
breastplate is especially important. The reference to the re- 
conciling mediatorship is especially marked by the fact that 
the high priest, when clothed with the Ephod, bears the 
names of the twelve tribes on his heart and shoulders. This 
latter fact is meant to signify that he as Mediator carries, as it 
were, the people of God, — that, so to speak, the people lie as a 
burden on him. 

From his tmction, which followed his robing, the high 
priest was called "the anointed priest." 

In addition to the functions of the common priests, the ser- 
vice on the day of atonement, and the Urim and Thummim, 
were specially assigned to the high priest. 

// The Theocratic Authority (§ 97 — 100). 

§ 97. 1. The Legislative Authority. 

In virtue of the principles of the theocracy, all the powers 
of the State are united in Jehovah ; even when the congrega- 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 87 

tion acts, it is in His name. He is first the Lawgiver (Isa. 
33 : 22). His legislative power He exercised through Moses. 
The fundamental law given through him is inviolably valid for 
all time. In the development of the theocracy, the need of re- 
ceiving an immediate proclamation of Jehovah's kingly will 
must always reappear. This need was met by the Urim and 
Thummim, through which the high priest, in whose breastplate 
they were set, received the decision of Jehovah (Num. 27 : 21) ; 
and this is why the breastplate bears the name of "the breast- 
plate of judgment" (Ex. 28: 30). The term Urim refers to 
the divine illumination, the Thummim to the unimpeachable 
correctness of the decision (1 Sam. 14: 41). It cannot be 
determined from the Old Testament how the decision took 
place, whether the divine answer came by the sparkling of the 
jewels (Rabbinical tradition), or by divine inspiration of the 
high priest (so Baehr and Hengstenberg). It is not quite clear 
from Ex. 28: 30; Lev. 8 : 8, whether the Urim and Thummim 
were different from the gems of the breastplate or not. We 
should expect to have a more particular description of them if 
they were anything distinct. 

The sacred lot seems to have been different from the Urim 
and Thummim. It was employed at the division of the tribal 
territories (Num. 26: 55, 56); to discover the guilty one who 
had brought a curse on the people (Josh. 7: 14, 15); and in 
1 Sam. 14: 41 (unless the Urim and Thummin are meant) and 
at the election of the king (1 Sam. 10: 20, 21). (See also Prov. 
18 : 18 ). These methods of inquiring into the Divine Will will 
retire into the background the more prophecy becomes promi - 
nent. 

2. The Judicial Power (§ 98, 99). 

§ 98. The Principle and Organization of the Administration of Justice. 

The administration of justice is, in virtue of the principles 
of theocracy, only an efflux of the divine judgment. "The 
judgment is God's" (Deut. 1: 17); to seek justice is to in- 



88 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

quire of God (Ex. 18 : 15), etc. The theocratic ordinances 
limit the power of the head of a family, by taking from him 
(Deut. 21: 18, 19; Ex. 21: 20) the power over the life and 
death of those belonging to him, which he still exercised in the 
time of the patriarchs (Gen. 38 : 24). Lynch law is also for- 
bidden because the office of avenger is God's alone (Lev. 
19 : 18). The old custom of blood revenge is indeed retained, 
but it is subjected to theocratic regulations. 

With regard to the organization of the courts of justice, we 
must distinguish in the Pentateuch the provisions given only 
for the march through the wilderness, and the regulations in 
Deuteronomy, which had reference to later circumstances. 

In these later regulations the administration of justice is 
placed in the hands of the congregation. A very vivid de- 
scription of the way in which courts were held in Israel is 
given by the story of the judgment of Naboth (1 Kings 21 : 1 
— 16). The community exercises its judical power by special 
judges, who are placed in all the gates (Deut. 16: 18). 

§ 99. The Course of Justice and Punishment. 

The course of justice is very simple. The parties must 
both appear in person before the judge, and the complaint is 
brought before the judges by word of mouth, either by the 
parties (Deut. 21: 20; 22: 16), or by others (Deut. 25: 1). 
The business of the judge is to hear and thoroughly investigate. 
The testimony of witnesses is the most usual form ol evidence 
and special emphasis is laid upon this. It is enacted that two 
or three witnesses shall be brought (Deut. 19: 15), particularly 
in criminal cases (Num. 35: 30; Deut. 17: 6). The oath is 
also a means of evidence (oath of purgation, Ex. 22: 6 — 10; 
adjuration of a wife who was accused of adultery (Num. 
5 : 11 — 31). The form of the sentence of judgment is not laid 
down. As a rule, execution immediately followed on con- 
demnation (Num. 15: 36; Deut. 22: 18; 25: 2). 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 89 

The Mosaic principle of punishment is the jus talionis : it 
shall be done to him who has offended as he has done (Ex. 
21 : 23 — 25); in other words, the punishment is a retribution 
corresponding' in quantity and quality to the wicked deed. 
The punishment of death is attached apparently to a large 
number of crimes (Ex. 21: 12 — 29; Lev. 20: 1 — 27; etc.). In 
general, in all cases where the people did not execute judg- 
ment on the transgressor, Jehovah himself reserves the ex- 
ercise of justice to himself (see, as main passage, Lev. 20: 4 — 6). 

In the Mosaic law, corporal chastisement (stripes) appears as 
another form of punishment (Deut. 25 : 2, 3), also fines f Ex. 
21 : 22; Lev. 24: 18). The jus talionis was to be recognized 
in case of bodily injury (Ex. 21 : 23 — 25). There occurs also 
the judicial selling of a guilty person. 

With what emphasis the law demands the strict and impar- 
tial administration of justice, especially with reference to the 
poor, see Ex. 23 : 6 — 8 ; Lev. 19 : 15 ; etc. 

§ 100. 3. The Executive Power. 

The Mosaic theocracy presents the peculiar phenomenon 
of being originally unprovided with a definite office for execut- 
ing the power of the state. The princes of the tribes (spoken 
of in Num. 1 : 16, 44 ; and elsewhere) form no theocratic body. 
Jehovah himself acts, as circumstances demand, in the im- 
mediate exercise of power, in order to execute his kingly will 
and to maintain the covenant law ; but for the rest, only the as- 
surance is expressed (Num. 27 ; 16, 17) that Jehovah will not 
leave his congregation as a flock without a shepherd, but will 
always, again and again, appoint a leader over them and endow 
him with his Spirit, as he raised up Joshua in Moses' stead, 
and afterward the Judges. This want of a regular executive in 
the Mosaic constitution has been thought very remarkable. 
But the theocratic constitution does not rest on the calculations 
of a clever founder of religion, but on the stability of the coun- 
sel of revelation. 

Yet Deuteronomy, in the law concerning a king (Deut. 
17 : 14 — 20) leaves open the possibility of setting up an earthly 



90 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

kingship (compare, moreover, the previous prophecy in Gen. 
17: 6, 16; 35: 11; Num. 24: 17). This future kingship is, 
however, subjected strictly to the theocratic principle. The 
people shall only set over them as king one whom Jehovah shall 
choose old of their midst. Moreover, the stability of his king- 
ship and its descent to his children are to depend on his obedi- 
ence to the law. 

III. The Organization of the Family, and the Legal Pro- 
visions connected therewith (§ 101 — in). 

§ 101. The Subdivisions of the Tribes. The Principles and Division of 
Mosaic Family Law. 

The tribes are naturally divided into clans; these into 
families or houses, generally called fathers' houses; then fol- 
low the various householders, with those that belong to them. 

Each family forms a self-contained whole, which, so far as 
possible, is to be preserved in its integrity. Each Israelite 
is a citizen of the theocracy only by being a member of a cer- 
tain clan of the covenant people ; hence the value of genea- 
logical tables. 

The following points are the most important for Biblical 
Theology: 1) The law of marriage ; 2) The relation of parents 
and children ; 3) The law of inheritance, and the provisions 
touching the continuance of a family and its possessions, (the 
avenging of blood goes along with this) ; 4) The law concern- 
ing servants. 

1. The Law of Marriage (§ 102—104). 

§ 102. The Contracting of Marriage. The dependent Position of the 
Wife, and the Forms of the Marriage Contract. 

In the Mosaic law, woman appears not, indeed, in the po- 
sition of degradation which she has among most other Oriental 
nations, but still dependent, inasmuch as her will is subject be- 
fore marriage to the will of her father, and after marriage to the 
will of her husband ; it is only when this tie is loosed that the 
wife holds a position of relative independence (Num. 30 : 4 — 
10). The marriage contract is generally supposed to have 
rested on a bargain made betweeen the parents of the bride 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 91 

and bridegroom, in virtue of which a price was paid to the 
father of the bride for his daughter, but according to others no 
such selling took place, a present being sent to the bride by 
the bridegroom, to which other presents were added for the 
kinsfolk of the bride (Gen. 24: 53, 58; 34: 12). It is most 
probable that various forms of the marriage contract existed 
side by side. The law does not require a religious consecration 
of the matrimonial tie; but it is clear from Mai. 2: 14 that 
marriage was to be regarded a divinely sanctioned bond. 
Purity of entrance into the married state is guarded by such 
laws as Deut. 22: 13 — 21, 28, 29. The wife's dependent place 
favored the spread of polygamy, although this was in con- 
tradiction to the Mosaic idea (see § 69). 

§ 103. Bars to Marriage. 

In the Mosaic law of marriage, the provisions concerning 
obstacles to marriage occupy an important place. These pro- 
visions are contained in Lev. 18: 6 — 18; 20: 11 — 21; Deut. 
27 : 20, 22, 23. All marriages with near relations, are forbid- 
den, and that not only with blood relations, but also with con- 
nections by affinity. The marriage of uncle and niece (Lev. 
18: 6 — 13), with the widow of a mother's brother, and a wife's 
sister after the wife's death, was allowed (Lev. 18 : 18). This last 
case is the famous point of controversy so often discussed in the 
English Parliament. But there can be no doubt upon the matter 
whatever. The prohibition mentioned in Lev. 18: 18 (that a 
man may not marry two sisters), refers expressly only to the 
time when the wife still lives ; marrying both at the same time, 
as the patriarch Jacob did, was forbidden. 

The moral ground of these prohibitions can be no other 
than the fact that moral fellozv ship is already constituted through 
the natural forms of near relationship , which would be dis- 
turbed by the matrimo?iial bond. (Abraham's marriage with 
his half-sister, for this is the most probable view of his relation 
to Sarah, seems, from the Mosaic standpoint, to have been 
justified mainly because through it alone the pollution of the 



92 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

race of revelation by heathen elements was prevented. See 
Gen. 24 : 3). 

§ 104. The Dissolution of Marriage. 

The dissolution of marriage can take place in two ways : 
1) By the disruption in fact of the matrimonial bond by the sin 
of adultry ; 2) By a divorce drawn up in a definite form. 

1. In the Mosaic law, adultery is so understood that it is 
only committed through the unchastity of a wife. On the part 
of the husband, adultery is committed only when he dishonors 
the free wife of another; in this case both are to be punished 
with death (Lev. 20 : 10 ; Deut. 22 : 22). By simple unchastity 
the husband offends indeed against the law which condemns 
as an abomination all fornication, and especially such prosti- 
tution as was committed among the neighboring heathen 
nations (Lev. 19: 29; Deut. 23: 18), but not against his wife. 
For the trial ol a woman suspected of adultery see Num. 

2. Divorce. The right ot divorce belongs to the husband 
only ; divorce is therefore called the dismissal of a wife. This 
right of dismissing a wife is not formally sanctioned by 
the law, but is presupposed as existing, and is limited not 
only by the law in Deut. 22 : 19, 29, but even in the 
law of divorce (Deut. 24 : 1 — 4). Such a formal bill 
of divorcement, no doubt, often prevented a too hasty re- 
pudiation. Deut. 24 ; 1 assigns as the ground which renders 
divorce admissible "some unseemly thing in the woman." The 
school of Hillel understood the expression to mean any matter 
of offence (e. g., if the wife have let the dinner burn ; etc.) ; but 
the school of Shammai referred it to really shameful conduct, 
such as unchaste behavior and the like. 

It is clear that this whole matter of divorce does not corres- 
pond to the idea of marriage proper in the Old Testament (see 
§ 69), and this is expressly set forth by Christ (Matt. 19 : 3 — 8). 
§ 105 . 2. The Relation of Parents to Children. 

The same promise is given to the honoring of parents as to 
obedience to the divine will in general (Ex. 20: 12, compared 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 93 

with Deut. 4: 40; 6: 2; etc.). Breach of the reverence due to 
parents is punished in just the same way as offences against 
the reverence due to God (Ex. 21 : 15, 17 ; Lev. 20: 9). Still 
the parents have only such rights over their children as are 
consistent with the acknowledgement of God's higher right of 
property, which is sealed by circumcision. This thought is 
conveyed particularly in the ordinance with reference to the 
redemption of the first-born sons. Even the human right of 
parents over their children is limited, in particular, the father 
has no right over the life and death of his children (such as 
the Roman law concedes) Deut. 21 : 18 — 21). 

The law also requires that a holy education in the fear and 
love of God be given to children (Deut. 4:9, 10 ; 6 : 6, 7 ; 
etc.). But the Pentateuch knows nothing of a scholastic incul- 
cation of the divine laws; it knows no formal religious instruc- 
tion at all. The Rabbinical tradition that boys in their twelfth 
year were bound to fulfil the law may be very ancient, but the 
earliest indication of this rule which we have is in the history of 
Jesus when He was twelve years old, and in Josephus' state- 
ment, that Samuel was called to be a prophet in the twelfth 
year of his life. 

3. The Law of Inheritance, and Provisions for the Permanence of 
Families and their Inheritance (§ 106—108). 

§ 106. The Law of Inheritance. Laws concerning Heiresses and the 
Levirate Marriage. 

After the father's death the first-born son is the head of the 
family. By the law in Deut. 21: 17, the provision that the 
first-born son is to receive a double inheritance is confirmed, 
and therefore, doubtless, the care of the mother and unmarried 
sisters, was incumbent on him. For the rest, the rule of in- 
heritance was apparently that the other sons inherited equally. 
For the law of inheritance if an Israelite left behind no son, see 
Num. 27 : 8 — 11. Daughters who were heiresses might marry 
only men of the tribe of their father (Num. 36 : 6 — 12"). 

Side by side with this last ordinance stands the Levirate 
law which was legally sanctioned by Deut. 25 : 5—10. The 



94 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA, 

exposition of this law is doubtful. Some hold that this law 
applied only to that brother who was in the position to take 
up the Levirate duty. Again the words, "if he have no son," 
are understood by the Jewish and many Christian expositors 
(so Keil and Schultz) of childlessness in general, so that if there 
was a daughter to be heiress, no Levirate marriage would be en- 
tered on; and for this the expressions in Matt. 22 ; 25 ("having 
no seed") and Luke 20: 28 ("childless") seem to speak. This 
passage in the Gospels shows that the Levirate law was still in 
force in the time of Jesus. 

§ 107. Provisions concerning the Preservation of the Family Inheritance. 

An inheritance was given to each family by Jehovah for its 
subsistence, as an hereditary feudal holding, and was therefore 
in itself inalienable, — which was to be preserved as far as pos- 
sible. When an Israelite is compelled by poverty to alienate 
his inheritance, this is only for a time, and the land itself is 
never actually sold, but only what it bore (Lev. 25 : 23 — 28). 
In the year of jubilee, moreover, every possession is to return to 
to the family to which it originially belonged, without re- 
demption. 

§ 108. The Avenging of Blood. 

In the Old Testament, blood revenge is taken for granted as 
a very ancient custom (Gen. 27 : 45). Mosaism, in virtue of 
its idea of man as the divine image, discerns in murder, a 
transgression against the Creator and Lord of human life (Gen. 
9: 5, 6), which must be atoned for "by the blood of him that 
shed it" (Num. 35 : 33). (Human life is so sacred that even 
the animal hy which a man is killed must be stoned Ex. 21 : 
28 — 32 ; Gen. 9 : 5). But because the family is injured at the 
same time by the murder, the execution of the avenging of 
blood is laid on "the avenger of blood," the nearest blood re- 
lation, who has to redeem the blood taken from the family by 
the crime committed. The laws regulating the avenging of 
blood are found in Ex. 21: 12 — 14; Num. 35: 9 — 34; Deut. 
19: 1— 13. . , 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 95 

1. Two kinds of murder are distinguished (Num. 35 : 9 — 
34) in reference to which the avenging of blood is commanded 
a) if any one strike another in such a way that death may be 
foreseen to be the probable consequence (vv. 16—18); b) if 
one has slain another out of hatred, or by design, or out of 
enmity (vv. 20, 21). On the other hand, in order to shelter 
from vengeance him who had slain a man zindesignedly and in- 
advertently, the law provided for the selection of six free cities, 
three on the east, and three on the west side of the Jordan 
(Deut. 4: 41 — 43; Josh. 20: 1 — 9). 

2. For intentional murder, there was no other expiation 
than the blood of the manslayer (Num. 35 : 31, 33). 

3. The avenging of blood falls upon the doer alone, the 
avenger of blood was not allowed to lay hands also on the 
family of the murderer. That the custom was still in full force 
in David's time appears from 2 Sam. 14: 6 — 11. 

4. The Rights of Servants in the House (§ 109—111). 
§ 109. Bondage in the Time of the Patriarchs. The Principles of the 
Rights of Bondmen. 

The Old Testament, in ascribing to man the nature and 
dignity of one made in the image of God, — in teaching, further, 
the descent of all mankind from one blood, — pronounces in 
advance that slavery is inadmissible. It is designated as a 
curse when a race falls into slavery (Gen. 9: 25, 27). Never- 
theless, the existence of a state of servitude is presupposed in 
the Old Testament. How elevated, however, the position of the 
slave is in the time of the patriarchs, is shown specially in the 
beautiful picture of Abraham's trusted servant, drawn in Gen. 
24, no doubt the Eliezer of Gen. 15: 2, whom Abraham for 
want of a son had appointed as his heir. 

The rights of the class of servants are more exactly defined 
by the law ; and a distinction is made between those servants 
who were Israelites by birth, and the slaves obtained by pur- 
chase or as a booty from other nations. These regulations rest 
on a twofold principle : 



96 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

i) That bondage, in a strict sense, all human servitude was 
for Israel completely done away with (Lev. 25: 42, 55; 26: 
13). With reference, however, to the whole profane mass of 
the Gentiles, slavery is recognized as allowable (Lev. 25 : 44 
-46). 

2) The Israelites, since they themselves were at one time 
slaves and strangers in Egypt, are to treat servants and 
strangers in a humane way (Ex. 22: 21 ; Deut. 15: 12 — 15; 
etc.). 

§ 110. The Regulations concerning Hebrew Servants. 

An Israelite might in a legal way become a slave, either by 
selling himself on account of poverty (Lev. 25 : 39, 47), or by 
being sold by judicial degree on account of inability to make 
compensation for a theft committed (Ex. 22 : 3). 

There are different ordinances in the Pentateuch concern- 
ing the way in which an Israelite who had fallen into slavery 
was to be treated, — the one in Ex. 21 : 1 — 11, and Deut. 15 : 
12 — 18; and the other in Lev. 25 : 39 — 55. 

The apparent contradiction between the two laws is to be 
solved (with J. D. Michaelis, Hengstenberg, and others), by 
supposing that during the first forty-four years of a period of 
jubilee, the emancipation of servants was entirely regulated by 
the laws in Ex. 21: 1 — 11 and Deut. 15: 12 — 18; while, on the 
contrary, the year of jubilee brought freedom to those who fell 
into servitude in the last years of the period of jubilee, even if 
they had not served for six years. 

§ 111. The Position of Servants not Israelites. 

By circumcision slaves obtained a right to partake of the 
Passover (Ex. 12: 44) ; they were thus, in distinction from 
aliens and day-laborers (Ex. 12: 45), to be treated as mem- 
bers of the family. It was not lawful to interfere with the 
Sabbath rest of the slaves (Deut. 5 : 14). The master had no 
right over the life of the slave (Ex. 21 : 12, 20, 21). The 
humane treatment of slaves required by the law is also incul- 
cated elsewhere in the Old Testament (Job 31 : 13 — 15). The 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 97 

admonitions not to treat a slave too delicately (Prov. 29: 19, 
21) are to be regarded as a parallel with those touching the 
training of children. 

Second Doctrine. The Mosaic Public Worship (§ 112 — 

156). 

§ 112. General Introductory Remarks. Essential Character of this 
Worship. 

Although the whole life of the Israelites must be shaped as 
a service paid to God, yet there exists a special series of in- 
stitutions, in which special expression is given to the funda- 
mental idea of the theocracy, — that Israel must consecrate to 
God, itself and all that it has. These institutions of public 
worship, however, must not be looked at in their bare outward 
form, but must be referred to the idea of the covenant, and in- 
terpreted from it — for the aim of the covenant is sanctification 
— and the whole task of the ritual worship is the representation 
and exercise of the process of sanctification. 

In the Mosaic ritual the acts of worship were not merely 
signs of internal things, which would go on in relative in- 
dependence of the acts of worship, — e. g., sacrifice does not 
symbolize a devotion to God taking place independently of the 
act of sacrifice ; it is not merely a symbol, but it is just the 
devotion of oneself to God which is carried out in the act of 
sacrifice. The sacrifice is itself an embodied prayer ; to it is 
attached the attainment of divine pardon and divine blessing. 
That the sacrificial side of worship is predominant in the Old 
Covenant, and the sacramental in the New, is due to the re- 
lation of Law to Gospel ; in the latter, what God does for man 
stands first ; in the former, man's acts. 

For the stage of infancy, the ritual ordinance has the edu- 
cational value of a process working from the outside to the in- 
side, and so awakening a God-fearing disposition, a conscious- 
ness of inward communion with God (Deut. 14: 22, 23). 
§ 113. The Place of the Word in Public Worship. 

The proclamation of the divine Word does not appear as 
an essential part of the Old Testament worship ; and though 



y» THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

the teachings of Jehovah's law and statues is specified among 
the priest's duties (Deut. 33 : 10), the reading of the law ap- 
pears in connection with worship only every seventh year, at 
the Feast of Tabernacles (Deut. 31 : 10, 11). But to the place 
of worship was attached, without express teaching, the knowl- 
edge of the God who shows Himself there as a present God 
(Ex.29; 43 — 46); while with the acts of worship was connected 
a lively transmission of the knowledge of the great deeds on 
which Israel rested its faith (Ex. 12: 26, 27 ; etc.). Neverthe- 
less, side by side with the established forms of worship there 
prevailed among the people a powerful spirit of prayer; and all 
the examples of prayer in the Pentateuch are represented as 
praying men of strong faith. 

Appendix : The Oath. 

The oath is regarded as a religious act (Deut. 6 ; 13). 
Swearing is accordingly an act of religious profession (Jer. 
4: 2), and is a distinct appeal to the penal justice of Jehovah 
against him who knowingly speaks falsehood (Josh. 22 : 22, 
23). The oath appears in private life from the most ancient 
times as promissory oath (Gen. 24: 2, 3); in particular, as an 
oath of covenant (Gen. 21 : 23 — 25). The law still further 
acknowledges the assertory oath as an oath of purgation before 
the court of justice (Ex. 22: 11). The form in which an oath 
was taken was always that the oath was sworn by Jehovah. 

Perjury, as a profanation of Jehovah's name (Lev. 19 : 12), 
as a vain use of it (Ex. 20 : 7), is a heavy sin. 

II. The Place of Worship (§ 114 — 119). 
§ 114. The Requisites for a plaee of Worship. 

Since the persons charged with the conduct of the Mosaic 
worship have already been treated of, we have in particular 
only to treat of three other points : 1) of the seat of worship ; 
2) of the acts of worship ; and 3) of the times of worship. 

The simplest place of worship is the altar, which is first 
mentioned in Gen. 8 : 20 ; a height rising toward heaven, sig- 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 99 

nifying the ascent of the devotion embodied in sacrifice. The 
first condition for a place of worship is, that it has been chosen 
and sanctified by God, and has actually been witnessed to as the 
place of His revelation (Ex. 20: 24; Deut. 12: 5, 11). 

The sanctuary is to be one only, that the people may be 
kept together in theocratic unity. 

§ 115. The Arrangement of the Mosaic Sanctuary. 

The Mosaic sanctuary was a tent, generally called the tent 
of meeting, i. e., of God with the people (Ex. 29: 42, 43). The 
other name for the sanctuary, tent (tabernacle) of the testimony 
(Num. 1: 50, 53; etc.), denotes the sanctuary as the place of 
revelation, In Ex. 26 : 1 — 37, we have the description of how 
the tabernacle was built, in which we may notice 1) the ten 
curtains (vv. 1 — 6); 2) the external coverings (vv. 7 — 14); 
3) the wood work used (vv. 15 — 30); 4) the veil and hanging 1 
(vv. 31—37)- 

The whole tent, 30 cubits long, and 10 wide, was divided 
into two rooms : in front, the Holy Place, twenty cubits long ; 
and behind this the Most Holy Place, 10 cubits square, sep- 
arated from the former by a curtain woven with pictures of 
cherubim, called the veil (separation) (Ex. 26: 31 — 33), 

The utensils of the sanctuary were as follows : In the 
court, in the open air before the sanctuary, stood the altar for 
burnt- offerings (Ex. 27: 1 — 8). At the four corners of the 
altar were heights, called horns, on which a part of the blood 
was smeared at the sin-offerings, and which were laid hold of 
by those who sought a refuge at the altar (1 Kings 1 : 50). 
Between the altar and the sanctuary was a copper washing- 
basin, in which the priests washed their hands and feet before 
going to the duties of the office (Ex. 30; 17 — 21). 

In the sanctuary itself, toward the north, stood the table 
with the twelve loaves of shewbread (Ex. 25 : 23 — 30). Op- 
posite the table stood a golden candlestick with seven lamps 
(Ex. 25 : 31 — 40.) In the middle, before the curtain leading in- 
to the Most Holy Place, was the altar of incense. 



100 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

In the Most Holy Place stood the ark of the covenant, the 
most sacred vessel of the sanctuary, containing the tables of 
the law, and covered with a golden plate called kapporeth 
(literally, an instrument of atonement, English Version, mercy 
seat), the most important part of the ark of the covenant (Lev. 
16: 13 — 16). Above the kapporeth stood two golden cher- 
ubim, with outspread wings and faces turned toward each 
other ; between them the shekhina of Jehovah was supposed to 
be (Ex. 25: 22; Num. 7: 89). Besides this, a vessel with 
manna (Ex. 16: 33); Aaron's rod that budded (Num. 17 : 10), 
and lastly, by the side of the ark of the covenant, the book of 
the law (Deut. 31 : 26), were kept in the Most Holy Place. 

§ 116. Meaning of the Sanetuary. Its Three Rooms. 

In the sanctuary is embodied the idea of God's dwelling 
among the people of Israel. Here the people come to Jehovah 
in his dwelling-place. Into the first division, the court, only 
the covenant people can go, and not into the sanctuary itself, 
which is only allowed to be entered by the priests fthe medi- 
ators of the people). But even these priests are not in a po- 
sition (on account of their sinfulness) to establish a full com- 
munion with God. For this reason Jehovah's dwelling-place 
is divided into two apartments : the veiled, holiest of all, 
in which Jehovah, the revealed, and yet hidden and in a 
manner unapproachable God is enthroned in the darkness > 
and the holy place, the place of the priests and their service, 
which on this account is the symbol of the mediation of the 
covenant. 

§ 111. Meaning of the Sacred Vessels in the Court and in the 
Sanctuary. 

The meaning of the various sacred vessels corresponds to 
the meaning of the three divisions of the sanctuary. The only 
piece of sacred furniture with reference to which an immediate 
activity of the people takes place, the altar of burnt -offering, 
stands in the court. The horns of the altar are 1) either sym- 
bols of the divine power of salvation and help (so Keil), or 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 101 

2) in these horns the general meaning of the altar (that 
worship ascends to God) culminates, so that thus the blood of 
atonement sprinkled on them is, as it were, brought a step 
nearer God (Oehler). The washing- basin marks the passing 
from the general offering of sacrifice to the specific priestly 
service. He who has to carry on the service of reconciliation 
for the congregation must sanctify his own walk and acts. 

In the holy place stands the altar of incense. The incense- 
offering, presented here every morning and evening by the 
hand of the priest was a symbol of the prayers of the people (Ps. 
141: 2; Rev. 5: 8; 8: 3). 

Oehler thinks that by the table with the shewbread is meant, 
that the people in its twelve tribes testifies by the continual 
presentation of nourishing bread in the sanctuary that it owes 
to the blessing of its God the maintenance of life ; and that 
thereby Israel dedicates to God the exercise of the calling by 
which it wins its daily bread in the use of God's gifts. This 
interpretation is carried further by Hengstenberg and others, 
who make the shewbread a symbol of spiritual nourishment. 
The candlestick with its sevenfold light points to the perfect 
Light which shines in this covenant community ; and in par- 
ticular, the light does not refer merely to the communication 
of higher knowledge, but to saving divine grace in general. 
This meaning of the symbol is specially confirmed by the 
visions of Zechariah (4 : 1 — 14). 

In the symbols of the Holy Place, the truth is expressed, 
that the people presents itself before its God in the light and 
life which it receives in virtue of covenant communion with 
God. 

§ 118. The Meaning of the Ark of the Covenant, with the Kapporeth and 
the Tables of the Law. 

In the Most Holy Place, the ark of the covenant is the 
symbol and vehicle of the presence of the revelation of Jehovah 
among his people. Hence it is called the throne of God (Jer. 
3: 16, 17); God's footstool ( 1 Chron. 28: 2; Ps. 99: 5). But 



102 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

its meaning is more nearly defined by the three parts — the 
kapporeth (mercy seat) on the ark, the tables of the law in it, 
and the cherubim over it. 

i. The kapporeth is the most important part of the ark of 
the covenant (Ex. 25 : 22). In the fact that it is the instrument 
of atonement, and that it is at the kapporeth that the highest 
act of atonement is executed, is expressed 1) that the God 
who dwells in the midst of His people can only commune with 
them in virtue of an atonement offered to Him, and 2) that He 
is also a God who can be reconciled. This throne of God is 
veiled in deep darkness (1 Kings 8: 12), and the manifestation 
of God over the kapporeth takes place in a cloud, which veils 
His glory (Lev. 16: 2). On the day of atonement, the high- 
priest when he approaches with the blood of atonement must 
envelope himself in a cloud of incense, when he raises the cur- 
tain (Lev. 16 : 13). This expresses the fact that full com- 
munion between God and man is not to be realized, even 
through the medium of the atonement to be attained by the 
Old Testament sacrificial institutions — that, as is said in Heb. 
9 : 8, as yet the way to the (heavenly) sanctuary was not made 
manifest. 

2. The kapporeth rests on the ark, in which are the tables 
of the law, the testimony. This means that God sits enthroned 
in Israel on the ground of the covenant of law which He has 
made with Israel. The testimony is preserved in the ark as a 
treasure, a jewel. And while the law is 1) a testimony to the 
will of God toward the people, it is also 2) a testimony against 
the sinful people, — a continual record of accusation, so to 
speak, against their sins in the sight of the Holy God. And 
now, when the kapporeth is over the tables, it is declared that 
God's grace, which provides an atonement or covering for the 
iniquity of the people, stands above His penal justice. 

§ 119. The Cherubim. 

The cherubim are one of the most important symbols of the 
Mosaic worship, occurring no less than eighty-five times in the 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 103 

Old Testament. They nowhere appear developed into in- 
dependent personality, like the malakhim (angels) ; they are 
not sent out like these, but are constantly confined to the seat 
of the divine habitation and the manifestation of the Divine 
Being. In Ezekiel, where their form is the most complicated 
(compare Rev. 4: 6 — 11), they appear with a fourfold face, 
that of a man, a lion, bull, and a.n eagle, — with four wings, their 
whole body covered with eyes (Ezek. 10 : 10 — 15). In Ezek. 
1 : 5 they are called living creatures, as in Rev. 4 : 6. This 
description of Ezekiel s is not to be transferred to the cherubim 
of the sanctuary, nor to the cherubim of the temple. The pas- 
sages in the Pentateuch lead, as Riehm and Keil rightly assert, 
to nothing further than to winged human forms. 

Our inquiry into the meaning of the cherubim must start 
from the fact that they designate a place as the abode of the 
habitation of God (Paradise, the tabernacle, and later the 
temple), and are thus the bearers of the manifestation of God 
when He manifests Himself to the world in His glory ; on 
which account they are called God's chariot (1 Chron. 28 : 18 ; 
Ps. 18: 10). Since they bar the entrance to Paradise (Gen. 
3 : 24), and protect and shade the ark (Ex. 25 : 20), the first 
element in their function is to express to man's consciousness 
the inaccessibility of the Divine Being. They reflect the glory 
of the unapproachable God in a form which is accessible for 
human eyes, but at the same time so constructed that they 
could give no support to the worship of images. By uniting 
in itself the noblest earthly living creatures (man, the eagle, the 
lion, the bull), the symbol is evidently meant more particularly 
to set forth the divine glory as it is manifested in the world. It 
is the cherubim which at one and the same time proclaim and 
veil the presence of God. The continual mobility of the living 
creatures (Rev. 4: 8) signifies the never -resting quickness of 
the divine operations; this is probably symbolized also by 
the wheels which are given to the cherubim in Ezekiel (1 : 16). 
The number four, connected with the cherubim in the later 
form of the symbol, is the signature of all-sidedness (towards 



104 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

the four quarters of heaven). Thus Jehovah, when He is hon- 
ored as the One who is enthroned above the cherubim, is ac- 
knowledged as the God who rules the world on all sides, in 
power, wisdom, and omniscience. 

The philological explanation of the term is altogether un- 
certain. 

II. The Actions of Mosaic Worship (§ 120 — 143). 

§ 120. On the Idea of Offerings in General. 

The actions of worship fall under the general notion of offer- 
ings. The essential nature of an offering in general is the de- 
votion of man expressed in an outward act. The inward impulse 
which impels man to praise, thank, and supplicate God finds 
expression, indeed, in words of devotion ; but this impulse is 
not fully satisfied till this word is, as it were, embodied in a cor- 
responding action, in which man deprives and denies himself of 
something and thus by deeds testifies the earnestness of his de- 
votion to God. 

An essential factor in the offering is substitution, which can 
take place in a twofold way, — 1) when the person who brings 
the offering is represented by the gift substituted in his room ; 
and 2) when something is substituted for the object to be offered 
(Ex. 13: 13). The idea of substitution is brought out more 
fully when another life is offered in the place of the life of the 
person who offers. 

§ 121. Pre-Mosaic Sacrifice and the Mosaie Covenant. Saeriflee as the 
Basis of Mosaie Sacrificial Worship. 

Sacrifice was not newly introduced by the Mosaic law. 
Genesis not only speaks of sacrifice as observed by the patri- 
archs, but, in Gen. 4, carries back the presenting of offerings to 
the earliest age of mankind. As has been shown above (see § 
20, 21), the pre-Mosaic offerings had the signification of thank- 
offerings and offerings of supplication, though a propitiatory 
element is connected with the burnt- offering (first mentioned 
Gen. 8 : 20), lying in the "sweet savour" (literally, odor of sat- 
isfaction), through which the sacrifice had an appeasing effect 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 105 

(Gen. 8 : 21). Although offerings for atonement, in the strict 
sense, are not mentioned in the Old Testament before the in- 
troduction of the Mosaic sacrificial law, still we may say that in 
Gen. 8 : 21 we have a first elementary and symbolic expression 
of the necessity of an atonement before God. It has been a long 
disputed question, whether the origin of sacrifice is to be traced 
back to a positive divine command, or to human invention and 
caprice. Oehler holds that in this way of putting the question, 
the alternative is not correctly formulated — because man offers 
in virtue of his inailenable divine image, which makes it im- 
possible for him to abstain from seeking that communion with 
God for which he was created, by such active self-devotion as 
takes place in offerings. 

Gen. 22 is important for the development of the Old Testa- 
ment idea of offering. In it is expressed 1) the divine sanction 
of sacrifice in general as the proof of man's believing devotion 
to God; 2) the declaration that such devotion is to be proved 
by readiness to part with even the dearest possession out of 
obedience to God ; 3) human sacrifice is banished out of the 
region of the religion of revelation ; 4) the acceptance of an 
animal victim as the substitute of man is ordained. 

The foundation of the whole system of Mosaic offerings is 
formed by the covenant offering in Ex. 24, especially in virtue 
of the meaning which here for the first time (apart from the in- 
stitution of the Passover J attaches to the blood of the sacrifice. 
The covenant is to subsist on offerings, for the people are not 
to approach their God with empty hands (Ex. 23: 15; Deut. 
16: 16, 17). In order, however, to make such an approach 
possible to the sinful people, God institutes an ordinance of 
atonement, which runs through all the acts of worship, and by 
the use which is from this time forward made of the blood of 
the sacrifice at the burnt and thank offerings, the idea is ex- 
pressed that man may never approach God without previous 
atonement, — that this must be accomplished before he can ex- 
pect that his gift will be favorably received by God. 



106 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

In describing the regulations concerning offerings, we 
treat i) of the material of the offerings ; 2) of the ritual of 
sacrifice ; and 3) of the various kinds of offerings with refer- 
ence to their purpose. 

1. The Material of the Offerings (% 122—125). 

§ 122. Bloody and Bloodless Offerings. 

According to their material, offerings are partly bloody and 
partly bloodless. Bloody offerings are exclusively animal- offer- 
ings. Human sacrifice was excluded from the legitimate wor- 
ship of God (Gen. 22: 11, 12; Ex. 13: 13; Deut. 12: 31). 

Offerings of animals are most important, chiefly on account 
of the significance attaching to the blood. For the most part 
the food- offerings and the drink-offerings which went along 
with them, were connected with animal-offerings. 

§ 123. The Material of Animal Offerings. 

In reference to the materials of animal offerings, it is laid 
down as law: 

1. That they must be taken from among the clean an- 
imals (Lev. 27: 9, 11). The law for distinguishing between 
clean and unclean animals is given in Lev. 11 and Deut. 14. 
On what ground does this distinction rest f It seems that the 
principle was laid down that all flesh- eating animals were 
necessarily to be accounted unclean, because to partake of 
blood is an abomination. So, too, the birds enumerated as 
unclean are partly birds of prey, and partly such as feed on 
worms and the like. To these are added all animals that had 
anything repulsive and hideous. For the larger land animals 
any other ground than that given in Lev. 1 1 : 4 — 6 could 
hardly have existed. 

2. Of clean animals, those were fit for offering which, formed 
the proper stock of domesticated animals, — cattle, sheep, and 
goats. Of fowl, turtle-doves and young pigeons were offered. 
The animals of sacrifice were to be without blemish, free from 
bodily imperfections (Lev. 22: 21 — 24). 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 107 

§ 124. The Ingredients of the Vegetable Offerings. Salt in the Offerings. 

The ingredients of the vegetable-offerings, and particularly 
of the Minhha, or food offering-, were according to Lev. 2, as 
follows : 1) Ears roasted by fire (Lev. 2 : 14) ; 2) Flour (Lev. 
2 : 1), — to both of these olive oil and frankincense were added 
(Lev. 2 : 1, 15, 16) ; 3) Unleavened loaves or cakes, prepared 
from fine flour, of three sorts (Lev. 2 : 4 — 8). Thus the food- 
offering was made of that which served as the common nourish- 
ment of man, and at the same time was produced by human 
toil. 

Two kinds of fermentation are forbidden, 1) with leaven ; 
and 2) with honey (Lev. 2 : 11) ; probably because the process 
of fermentation was looked on as akin to corruption. 

Salt was essential to every meat-offering (Lev. 2 : 13). In 
virtue of its power of seasoning and preventing putrefaction, 
salt is the symbol of cleansing and purification as well as 
durability. 

§ 125. The Principle on whieh the Material of Offerings was fixed. 
The principal views are as follows : 

1. A first view holds that these rules were fixed with an 
eye to the people' s property (Bahr). But this view is far too 
extensive to explain the material of offerings. 

2. A second view holds that the determining principle is 
that of nourishment. Offerings are frequently called the bread 
of God (Lev. 21 : 6; 22: 25; etc.), not as of food offered for 
God's nourishment, but only of a giving to God of the people's 
nourishment. The people bring an offering to God of the food 
which they have produced in the vocation ordained for them 
of God ; and thus they sanctify their calling, and bring a testi- 
mony of the blessing which God has given on the labor of 
their hands (Deut. 16: 17). 

3. This last conception favors that point of view which 
Kurtz has asserted with good reason (which only must not, as 
Kurtz formerly did, be taken as the actual principle of choice), 
— the psychico-biotic relation in which the offerer stands to the 



108 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

gift presented. The feature of self-denial essential to a real 
offering- is particularly prominent in these gifts, which are 
taken from the best and most precious part of man's produce, — 
for it is specially an act of self-denial to give the first-fruits of 
the herd and of the field, to which the heart is wont to cling 
particularly. 

What is the meaning to be attached to the oil and the in- 
cense which accompany the food -offering? No doubt the 
offering of the incense is the symbol of prayer ascending to 
God, and well-pleasing in His sight (Ps. 141 : 2), and the in- 
cense along with the Minhha is to serve to imprint more 
definitely on the offering the character of a vehicle of prayer. 
It is disputed, however, whether the oil, like the incense and 
the salt, is simply a supplement to the Minhha (Kurtz), — 
namely an unction indicating (because oil is a symbol of the 
communication of the Spirit) that only such labor is well-pleas- 
ing to God as is consecrated by the Divine Spirit, and that 
only those gifts should be brought to Him which are produced 
by such toil, — or, whether the oil in the offering is co-ordinate 
with the grain and the wine, and thus an independent con- 
stituent of the gift. 

2. The Ritual of Sacrifice (§ 126—129). 

£ 125. The Ritual of Animal Sacrifice. Presentation at the Altar; 
L" , ng on of Hands; Slaughter. 

The parts that make up the action of offering, and first of 
animal sacrifice, are in general — 1) The presentation of the 
animai to „,c sacrificed before the altar; 2) the laying on of 
hands ; 3) Killing ; 4) Sprinkling of the blood ; 5) Burning on 
the altar. 

1. The consecration of the offerer, accomplished by avoid- 
ing all levitical defilement, and by washing, preceded the 
sacrificial festival (1 Sam. 16 : 5). After this the offerer had in 
person to bring the animal selected to the entrance of the 
tabernacle (Lev. 1 : 3; 4: 4) where stood the altar of burnt 
sacrifice (Ex. 40 : 6). 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 109 

2. Then the offerer (if there was more than one, one after 
the other, Ex. 29 : 10) laid, or more correctly pressed firmly, 
his hand on the head of the sacrificial animal (Lev. 1 : 4 ; 3 : 2 ; 
4: 4, etc). The offerer, by the laying on of his hands, appoints 
the animal to be for him a medium and vehicle of atonement, 
thanks, or supplication, according to the designation of the 
offering with which at the time he now wishes to appear be- 
fore God. 

3. The slaughtering of the beast of sacrifice follows im- 
mediately on the laying on of hands, and, as the law presup- 
poses throughout, is executed at private offerings by the offerer 
himself. At those sacrifices, however, which formed the 
standing service at the offerings for the cleansing of lepers 
(Lev. 14 : 13, 25), as well as the sacrifices offered for the whole 
nation (2 Chron. 29 : 22, 24), the slaughtering was the business 
of the priests, who were probably assisted by the Levites (2 
Chron. 29: 34). 

The place of slaughtering was on the north side of the altar 
(Lev. 1 : 11 ; etc.), probably because it was dark, and therefore 
cheerless. The law makes no regulations for the manner of 
slaughtering. 

§ 127. The Use made of the Shed Blood. 

4. The streaming blood of the slaughtered animal was im- 
mediately caught in a basin by a priest, and was stirred incess- 
antly to prevent it from clotting. The manipulation of the blood 
which followed differed according to the various kinds of offer- 
ings, that is, according to the degree in which the element of 
atonement was connected with the sacrifice. The lowest grade 
(in the case of burnt-offerings, Lev. 1 : 5, trespass-offerings, 
Lev. 7: 2, and thank-offerings, Lev. 3: 13) consisted in sprink- 
ling, or rather swinging, the blood around the altar. On the 
contrary, at the sin-offerings higher grades of the manipulation 
of the blood took place, consisting in bringing the blood to 
specially sanctified places, according to the dignity of the sin- 
offering. In the Jirst or lower grade of sin-offering, part of the 



110 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

blood was put on the horns of the altar of burnt- offering (Lev. 
4: 30, 34); in the second, the blood was brought into the holy 
place, and part of it was sprinkled or spurted (Lev. 4: 6, 17) 
seven times toward the inner veil, and put on the horns of the 
altar of incense. In both cases the remaining quantity of blood 
was to be poured at the foot of the altar of burnt-offerings. In 
the highest grade of sin-offering, the blood was brought into the 
Holy of Holies, and the kapporeth (mercy-seat) was sprinkled 
with it (Lev. 16: 14 — 16). 

The meaning of this use of the blood is given in Lev. 17: 
11, where the prohibition to use blood is based on the follow- 
ing declaration: " For the life (soul) of the flesh is in the blood: 
and I have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement 
for your souls : for it is the blood that maketh atonement by 
reason of (in virtue of) the life (soul)." The passage means, 
that in the still fresh blood of the sacrifice which is put on the 
altar, the soul of the animal is presented for the soul of man, 
to atone for, more exactly to cover, the latter. The Hebrew 
words {Kipper, Kopher, Kippurim) used to express the idea of 
atonement, denote expiation as a covering ; the guilt is to be 
covered — withdrawn, so to speak, from the gaze of Him who 
is to be reconciled by the atonement, so that the guilty one can 
now approach Him without danger (Ex. 30: 12 ; Num. 16 : 46). 
In the language of sacrifice, the priest, as the mediator between 
God and the people, is in general designated as he who covers, 
or expiates, or makes atonement (Lev. 10: 17; 15: 15, 30). 
That by which a trespass is be covered can only be something 
by which he against whom man has offended is satisfied. Thus 
kopher passes over into the meaning of lutron, ransom, the 
payment which buys a debtor free (Ex. 21 : 30; Num. 35 : 31). 

Now in what sense is the soul of the animal presented in the 
blood to serve in the sacrifice as a covering for the soul of man ? 
Generally speaking, by man's placing the soul of the pure, in- 
nocent sacrifical animal between himself and God, because he 
is unable to approach God immediately on account of his sin- 
fulness and impurity. For the congregation of Israel the ap- 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. Ill 

proach to God is made possible by the fact that God gives to 
it in the Mosaic ritual the means of covering sin which is well- 
pleasing to Him, the Holy One. God has put the soul of the 
clean and guiltless animal, which is presented to Him in the 
blood of the offering, in the place of the impure and sinful soul 
of the offerer, and this pure soul, coming between the offerer 
and the Holy God, lets Him see at His altar a pure life, through 
which the impure life of the offerer is covered ; and in the same 
way this pure element serves to cover the pollutions clinging 
to the sanctuary and to do away with them. This is the old 
Testament type for the passage in Heb. 9: 14, "who through 
the eternal Spirit offered himself without blemish unto God." 
The blood of sacrifice has thus a quite specific meaning. It is 
that which alone makes God's acceptance of all gifts possible, 
since in it the self-sacrifice of the offerer is vicariously accom- 
plished. 

§ 128. The Burning of the Offering. 

5. When the manipulation of the blood was completed, the 
burning of the offering followed. In the burnt- offering, all the 
flesh and the fat pieces were consumed after the parts had been 
washed which required cleansing (Lev. 1 : 7 — 9) ; in the other 
offerings, only the fat pieces. The burning of the offering com- 
pletes the surrender of it on the part of the offerer, and for him 
the gift is destroyed, but only in such a way that at the same 
time the acceptance of the gift on the part of God ensues — an 
odor, which is well- pleasing to God, being produced as the 
smoke and vapor of the burnt-offering, the real essence of the 
offering, rises upward, so that he is thus made to enjoy the 
offering, which is what is meant by the regularly-recurring 
formula, " an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the 
Lord" (Lev. 1 : 9, 13, 17). But the fire which consumes the 
offering is originally one coming from God, because God 
thereby appropriates the offering (Lev. 9 : 24). It must never 
go out on the altar, but must be continually nourished by the 
burnt- offering and the fat of the peace-offering, in order to 



112 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA, 

preserve the indentity of the fire on the altar with the original 
heavenly fire, and to represent at the same time the unbroken 
course of the adoration of Jehovah carried on in sacrifice. This 
heaven-born fire is the symbol of the divine holiness which re- 
veals itself in Israel. That God accepts every offered gift only 
by means of the element which proceeds directly from Him, is 
intended to teach that every sacrifice which man makes to God 
is made perfect only by being taken up into the purifying, 
sanctifying element of divine life (compare Mark 9 : 49). The 
latter, indeed, becomes a consuming fire, for those who ap- 
proach the Holy One in a profane spirit (Lev. 10: 2; Isa. 33: 

14)- 

§ 129. Ritual of the Food- offering. 

At those food -offerings which accompanied the burnt- offer- 
ings presented for the congregation, it is probable (there is no 
certain command) that the whole quantity of flour, oil and in- 
cense was burnt on the altar. At free -will food- offerings the 
offerer brought the material to the priest, who took a handful of 
the flour and the oil, together with the whole of the incense, and 
burned it on the altar (Lev. 2 : 1 — 3). The food-offerings ac- 
companying peace-offerings will be treated of along with these. 

3. Of the various kinds of Offerings with reference to their Purpose 
(§ 130—143). 

§ 130. Various Kinds of Offerings as thus distinguished. 

The law of offering distinguishes, with reference to their 
design, four kinds of offerings, — burnt, peace, sin and trespass 
offerings. 

§ 131. a) The Burnt-offering. 

The ordinary name of the burnt-offering ( c ola) means " that 
which rises upward to God in the fire" (so Bahr, Keil, Delitzsch 
and Dillmann). The animal sacrificed must in accordance 
with the high rank of the offering, be a male without blemish, 
taken from among the most perfect of the beasts of sacrifice 
(cattle, sheep, or goats) (Lev. 1 : 1 — 13). After the skin had 
been taken off (which was the perquisite of the priest, Lev. 7 : 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 113 

8), and the offal removed, the animal was wholly burnt on the 
altar, and the blood was sprinkled round it. 

In this offering, the people and the individual expressed in 
a general way their adoration of Jehovah and their devotion 
to him. In virtue of the presention of blood connected with it, 
and as a fire-offering of pleasant order, it is also propitiatory 
(appeasing) in general ; it serves to make him who offers it ac- 
ceptable before Jehovah, — indeed in virtue of this acceptableness, 
it serves as a covering or atonement for the offerer (Lev. i : 
4; 14: 20; 16: 24). This burnt- offering was the morning and 
evening sacrifice presented daily in the name of the people (the 
embodiment of morning and evening prayer), for which a year- 
ling lamb was always used. This is called the continual burnt- 
offering. The time for presenting the offering was also the 
hour of prayer fDan. 9 ; 21 ; Acts 3 : 1), as, generally speak- 
ing, it is likely that an act of prayer was combined with the 
burnt-offering (compare 2 Chron. 27 — 30). 

The Sabbath, the New Moon, and the feasts were marked 
by an increased burnt-offering (Num. 8 : 9, 11, etc.). 

b) The Peace-offering (§ 132—136). 

§ 132. Its Name, Notion, and Division. 

The name of this sacrifice (shelamim) may be explained in 
a two-fold manner. 

1. Some take it as derived from the Kal shalem, to be en- 
tire. This makes the name of the sacrifice declare that the 
offerer is in a relation of integrity, a relation of peace and friend- 
ship with God. 

2. Others take it as derived from the Piel shillem, to com- 
pensate. But if this derivation is adopted, we are not to limit 
the shelamim (peace offering) to the specific notion of the 
thank- offering, for peace-offerings are offered not only for some 
benefit already obtained, but also for one still desired ; in short, 
as a testimony that to God alone we are indebted for whatever 
we receive or hope. 

We are to distinguish three kinds of peace-offerings : 1) the 



114 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA, 

the thank or praise offering (Lev. 7: 12 — 15); 2) the vow 
(Lev. 7 : 16) ; 3) the free-will offering (Lev. 7 : 16). 

The thank-offering was the highest among the peace-offer- 
ings, referring to a favor not already supplicated for, properly 
a grateful acknowledgement for Divine favors as undeserved as 
they were unexpected. The vow always refers to something 
distinctly prayed for. The free-will offering is every free gift for 
which there was no other occasion than the will of the offerer, 
whom his heart impelled to show his thankful sense of all the 
blessings which the goodness of God had bestowed on him. 

§ IS 3. The Ritual of the Peace-offering. 

In the peace-offering the whole animal was not placed upon 
the altar, but the fat alone was removed at the cutting up of the 
animal and afterward burnt (Lev. 3 : 3 — 5,9 — n, 14 — 16). This 
fat consisted, in the case of oxen and goats, of four, in that of 
sheep, of five parts. The reason for burning these fatty por- 
tions on the altar was that they were regarded as the choice 
parts of the animal. After the removal of the fat, the offerer of 
a private peace offering was to bring with his own hand not 
only this, but also the wave-breast and the right shoulder 
(therefore a fore-leg) to the priest as a heave-offering (Lev. 7 : 

29—34)- 

The waving consisted in the priest's laying the matter to be 
waved upon the hands of the offerer, placing his hands under 
those of the latter and moving them in a horizontal direction — 
backward and forward, according to the Talmud, and also to- 
ward the right and left, that is towards the four quarters of the 
heavens, according to some later Rabbis. This waving took 
place almost exclusively in the case of such portions of sacri- 
fice as were allotted to the priests as a gift from Jehovah. The 
swinging forward evidently denoted the presentation of the gift 
to God, while the moving it backward again indicated that 
God on His part returned the gift, and assigned it to the priest. 

The heaving was a special ceremony ; a moving upward and 
downward of portions of the sacrifice with reference to the God 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 115 

who rules in heaven and on earth. In some cases it was com- 
bined with the wave-offering, in others practised independently, 
and generally speaking, heaving and burning appear in combi- 
nation. 

After the separation of the wave -breast, the rest of the flesh 
was the portion of the offerers, to be used by them as a sacri- 
ficial feast in the sanctuary, in which all the members of their 
families and other guests might participate. Levitical cleanness 
was indispensable in all who ate of the sacrifices. In the case 
of the thank-offering, the flesh was to be consumed on the same 
day (Lev. 7: 15); in that of other sacrifices, on the second 
day at the farthest ; if any remained till the third day, it was to 
be burned (Lev. 7 : 16 — 18). 

The signification of this sacrificial feast was that God con- 
descended to be the guest of the offerer, receiving the breast as 
His portion of honor, and then relinquishing it to His servant 
the priest. Thus the repast was a pledge of the blessed fellow- 
ship into which He would enter with His people among whom 
He dwelt. It was also to be a love-feast, at which, besides the 
members of the family, the Levites (Deut. 12 : 18), and (as pre- 
scribed, Deut. 16 : 11, in the case of the peace-offerings at Pen- 
tecost) the needy were to find refreshment. 

%134. Of Vows. 

The idea of the vow extends much farther than those vowed 
sacrifices properly so called, discussed in § 132. Three sorts of 
vows are mentioned : 1) vows of devotion (Neder) ; 2) vows of 
destruction (Hhereni) ; 3) vows of abstinence (' Esar or 'Issar). 

The positive vow of devotion first appears in the Old Testa- 
ment in the case of Jacob (Gen. 28 : 20 — 22), as a promise to 
erect a place of worship, and might extend to persons, even the 
person of the vower, to animals and to lands (the vow of Han- 
nah, 1 Sam. 1 : 11). For the law of redeeming a vow, see Lev. 
27: 1—25. 

Anything which had fallen under the curse could only be 
the subjects of the Hherem> This word signifies "a being cut 



116 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

off," for to be subject to the Hherem is to have forfeited exist- 
ence. The Hherem might be carried into execution either in 
consequence of a Divine command or of a special kind of vow. 
Nothing devoted could be redeemed (Lev. 27 : 28, 29). Of 
course this vow might not be arbitrarily vowed, but only that 
which had incurred the judgment due to idolatry could be thus 
placed under the ban (as may be inferred from Ex. 22 : 19 ; 
Deut. 13 : 16). Hence the vow of extermination must be re- 
garded as a manifestation of zeal for Jehovah 's honor. 

Among vows of abstinence, the most usual was that of fast- 
ing , which except on the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16 : 29 ; 23 : 
27), was quite voluntary, and therefore often appears as the ex- 
pression of penitence (compare 1 Sam. 7:6; Joel. 2:12; etc.), 
or of mourning in general. It is characteristic of the moral 
spirit of Mosaism, that it strictly forbids all unnatural austeri- 
ties, such as maiming and mutilating the limbs, branding, and 
the like (Lev. 19: 28; Deut. 14: 1, 2; etc.). 

A vow was never regarded as specially meritorious (Deut. 
23 : 22). Of course, if a vow were once made, its performance 
was strictly insisted on, with certain exceptions (Num. 30: 
3 — 8; Deut. 23: 21 — 23). Inconsiderate vows are expressly 
reproved (Prov. 20 : 25 ; Eccl. 5 : 4 — 7). 

§ 135. Nazaritism. 

The most important vow was that of Nazaritism. The 
name Nazar (to separate) denotes this vow as one of ab- 
stinence. The Nazarite, however, is one who separates himself 
with a positive purpose of consecration to Jehovah. The law 
of Nazaritism (Num. 6: 1 — 21) treats only of a temporary 
and evidently a voluntary assumption of this vow, and not of a 
perpetual Nazaritism like that of Samson, Samuel and John 
the Baptist (the only Nazarites for life mentioned in the Scrip- 
tures). Strict obedience in three things was required : 1) Total 
abstinence from wine or strong drink, even from all that pro- 
ceeds from the vine, down to the kernels and husks ; 2) He 
was not allowed to cut his hair ; 3) All contact with the dead 
was to be carefully avoided. For the rest, he was not com- 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 117 

manded to withdraw from intercourse with his fellow-men, 
nor does the law of the Nazarite speak of an obligation to 
celibacy ; for which reason the Roman Catholic view, which 
sees in Nazaritism a type of monachism, is irrelevant. The 
usual and at the same time shortest duration of this vow 
amounted, according to later enactment, to thirty days. 

From Num. 6: i — 21 we learn that Nazaritism contemp- 
lated a consecration of the whole being. The idea of the priestly 
life, with its purity and remoteness from everything affected 
by death or corruption, its self-dedication to God, which sets 
aside even the nearest earthly ties, is the fundamental idea of 
Nazaritism. The hair of the Nazarite was a symbol of strength 
and vitality and denoted that his person was God's possession, 
and his strength dedicated to His service, while its growth 
formed a sacred ornament, like the diadem by which the high 
priest was recognized as consecrated to God. Thus the com- 
mand to let the hair grow forms the positive side to the com- 
mand to avoid all contact with a dead body. In the case of 
Samson, the hair was not merely the symbol but also the 
vehicle of that abundance of strength by which he was fitted to 
become the deliverer of his fellow-countrymen. 

§ 136. Appendix: The Theocratic Taxes. 

The fundamental idea of the theocratic taxes was that the 
people and all their possessions, especially the Holy Land, 
belonged to the Lord. Four kinds of such theocratic taxes 
may be mentioned: 

1) The (male) first-born, both of man and beast belonged 
to the Lord, of which the former were to be redeemed (Ex. 13: 

11— 13). 

2) The first-fruits of all the produce of agriculture (Ex. 
23: 19; etc.). 

3) As the first-fruits represent the blessings to be received, 
the tenth was, properly speaking, the fee which the Israelite 
had to render to Jehovah, as the Lord of the soil, for the pro- 
duce of the land. This tenth of the fruits, whether of field or 



118 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

tree (Lev. 27: 30 — 33), was assigned to the Levites (Num. 18: 
21 — 25), as a compensation for their deprivation of an inheri- 
tance among- the tribe •». Of this tenth the Levites were to pay 
a tenth to the priests (Num. 18: 26). 

4) The tax imposed for the service of the sanctuary, which 
according to Ex. 30: 12, 13, was half a shekel, was not a mere 
property-tax, but rather for personal atonement, or more 
strictly a covering. The money thus raised was, according to 
Ex. 38: 25 — 27, applied to the building of the sanctuary. But 
this tax can not be considered as an annual one. In Neh. 10: . 
32, 33 we first meet with a yearly contribution of a third of a 
shekel for the service of the sanctuary, and that without ref- 
erence to the Mosaic enactment. In the times of Christ the 
half shekel reappears as a general Jewish temple- tax (Matt. 
17: 24). 

c) The Atoning Sacrifices (§ 137—143). 

% 137. The Difference between the Trespass-offering and the Sin- 
offering with respect to the end in view. 

The third and fourth kinds of sacrifice, the sin-offering and 
the trespass -offering have the common end of abolishing all 
interruption of the covenant relation caused by some tran- 
gression. This trangression is mainly designated as one com- 
mitted in error, i. e. in ignorance, unintentional (see with 
respect to sin-offering, Lev. 4: 2, 13, 22, 27; etc; trespass- 
offering (Lev. 5: 15, 18). Still the expression {iinwittingly or 
through error) includes more than mere inadvertence, and 
extends to errors of infirmity, of rashness, we might say, of 
levity. 

If we examine the three passages on the trespass-offering 
in which its import most clearly appears (Lev. 5: 14 — 19; 6: 
1 — 7; Num. 5: 5 — 10), we find that the trespass -offering pre- 
supposes an act of defrauding, which, though chiefly an in- 
fraction of a neighbor's rights and in the matter of property, 
is, also, according to the views of Mosaism, an infraction oi 
God's rights in respect to the law. Besides material reparation, 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 119 

increased by a fifth of the value, the transgressor had also to 
make satisfaction to God by means of the trespass-offering. 

Satisfaction being thus rendered in the trespass-offering 
for an act of defrauding it served indeed at the same time as 
a covering or atonement for him who had committed the act 
of defrauding (Lev. 5: 18), so that, covered by this satisfaction, 
he might approch the holy God. But to effect directly an 
atonement for a sinner's soul and therefore the absolution 
from sin of the sinner's person, was the office not of the tres- 
pass but of the sin offering. Delitzsch expresses it in this 
wise: The fundamental idea of the sin-offering is expiation, 
that of the trespass -offering satisfaction, in the former, the 
evangelical feature is prominent, in the latter, the disci- 
plinary. 

§ 138. The Ritual of the Trespass-offering. 

There is a decided difference in the ritual between the tres- 
pass and the sin-offering corresponding to their different inten- 
tions. Only the male sheep, generally the full grown ram, the 
very animal not included among the sin-offering victims, was 
used for the trespass -offering. Another distinction was, that the 
victims in the case of the trespass-offering were always the same, 
and no substitute could be admitted, as in the sin-offering, on 
account of the poverty of the worshipper. This makes it 
clear that the chief object of the trespass-offering was not an 
expiation for the person as such, but a compensation for a 
strictly denned injury. 

The proceedings at the bringing of the trespass- offering 
are laid down in Lev. 7: 1 — 7. 

§ 139. The Ritual of the Sin-offering. 
Peculiar to the sin-offering are : 

1. The difference of the victims, according to the theocra- 
tic position of him for whom they where sacrificed. The victim 
was a young bullock in sin-offerings of the highest grade (Lev. 
16: 3; 4: 3; 4: 13; Ex. 29: 10, 14, 36); a kid of the goats 
for the people on the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16: 5), and on 



120 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

the other yearly festivals, and at the New Moon (Num. 28 : 15, 
22, 30 ; etc.) ; a goat or a female lamb for an ordinary Israelite 
(Lev. 4 : 28, 32 ; etc.) ; turtledoves and young pigeons for the 
very poor (Lev. 5 : 7 ; 14: 22). 

2. The blood was brought to more sacred places than was 
the case in other sacrifices, and in the three following degrees. 
a) In sin-offerings of goats, kids, or lambs, for individual Isra- 
elites (the high priest excepted), some of the blood was smeared 
on the horns of the altar, and the rest poured out at its base 
(Lev. 4: 25, 30, 34). b) In the sin-offerings of bullocks offered 
for the congregation or for the high priest (other than on the 
Day of Atonement), the blood was sprinkled seven times to- 
ward the inner veil, the horns of the altar of incense were 
smeared therewith and the rest was poured out at the base of 
the altar of burnt-offering (Lev. 4 : 5 — 7, 16 — 18). c) At the 
greatest of the sin-offerings, that on the Day of Atonement, the 
the blood was taken into the Holy of Holies (see § 140). 

3. The consumption in sin-offerings of the lower grade of 
the flesh of the sacrifice, which had come into close contact with 
God, and was therefore designated as most holy, by the priests 
in the fore-court of the sanctuary (Lev. 6 : 26, 29). 

The explanation of the ritual of the sin-offering must be 
connected with what has already been said on the nature of sac- 
rificial atonement. To substitute for the impure soul of the sin- 
ner a pure soul, which, being offered to God, may cover the 
offerer, is the meaning of a bloody offering, and consequently 
the direct intention of the sin-offering (see § 127). 

The significance of the several elements of the sin-offering 
is as follows : 1) The laying on of the hand, with which was 
probably connected the confession of sin, is meant to express 
the intention of the offerer to sacrifice the life of the animal as 
a covering for his impure soul. 2) The sacrifice itself follows 
in the blood obtained by the slaughter, and then immediately 
applied to the holy place where God is present. This bringing 
of the blood to God advances in sin-offerings of the higher grade, 
till it reaches its climax in the great annual Atonement, the 



filBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 121 

blood of which attains the nearest approach, by being brought 
into the Holy of Holies. 3) The offering of the blood is fol- 
lowed by the burning of the fatty portions, for God commands 
that the fat also of the pure victim, whose blood He has ac- 
cepted as a covering for the soul of the sinner, should be 
conveyed to him by means of fire, and this gives it the signifi- 
cance of a propitiatory offering, the acceptance of which serves 
as a sanction to the preceding act of atonement. Only the fat, 
however, and not the whole animal, was presented on the altar, to 
give prominence to the idea that in this sacrifice the offering of 
a gift holds a secondary position in the act of expiation. 4) The 
eating of the flesh by the priests (in the case of sin-offerings of 
the lower grade, as well as of peace-offerings) involves, like 
the burning of the fat, an acceptance on the part of God, which 
serves to declare and confirm the fact that the sacrifice has act- 
ually attained its end of making an atonement. 

§ HO. The Ritual of the Day of Atonement. 

The supreme act of expiation was that which took place on 
the tenth day of the seventh month (Tisri), the annual Day of 
Atonement. To it refer the laws in Lev. 16, and in Num. 29 : 
7 — 11. On this day an atonement was effected, not merely for 
the people and the priesthood, but in connection therewith for 
the sanctuary also (Lev. 16: 16). This atonement related, more* 
ever to all the sins of the people, — and therefore to those also 
which had been already expiated by other acts, on the assump- 
tion that the atonement in the fore- court was insufficient. 

With respect to the nature of the sins, the above passages 
seem to set no limit to the atonement, and the expiation of the 
Day of Atonement had reference to every kind of sin, and 
availed for the congregation as a whole (Lev. 16: 33). 

The act of atonement to be effected is divided into two acts: 
1) the atonement for the high priest and his house, and 2) for 
the congregation. The atonement for the high priest must take 
place first, because the mediator capable of effecting an atone- 
ment for the people of God must first be prepared. 



122 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

The ritual of the day is given in Lev. 16. The High Priest 
wore the white linen garments on the day he entered the Holy 
of Holies, the seat of the divine Shekhina, for the same reason 
that they are attributed to the highest spirits who stand before 
the throne of God in heaven (Ezek. 10: 2: Dan. 10: 5; etc.), 
to symbolize the highest degree of pwity. 

Of the two kids which were the sin-offering for the congre- 
gation it is said : And the high priest "shall cast lots upon the 
two goats ; one lot for the Lord, and the other lot for Azazel " 
(Lev. 16 : 8). With regard to this word Azazel, we are not to 
regard it as a designation of the goat, but rather as the name 
of the evil spirit whose abode is in the wilderness, and who is 
thus designated as the one who is sent away. The word itself 
may be taken as an abstract name in the sense of " dismissal." 
We are scarcely justified, however, in regarding Azazel as 
Hengstenberg does, as simply equivalent to Satan, because the 
latter does not appear by name in the Pentateuch ; still the idea 
of Azazal is at all events akin to the idea of Satan. 

The ascending cloud of incense (Lev. 16: 13), symbolical 
of prayer ascending to God, was to interpose as a protection 
between the high priest and the presence, albeit concealed, of 
God. 

By his entrance into the Holy of Holies with the blood of 
the buliock (Lev. 16 : 14), the High Priest made atonement for 
himself, and was thus prepared for making it for the congrega- 
tion. The first and single sprinkling must be referred to the 
personal purification of the High Priest and the priesthood 
(so also Kurtz and Keil), the second and sevenfold to the puri- 
fication of the sanctuary, which had been polluted by the sinful 
atmosphere of the priests. 

The High Priest now returned to the court, slew the goat 
destined for the Lord, brought its blood also into the Holy of 
Holies, and performed the same sprinklings as before. This 
concluded the acts of atonement made in the Holy of Holies. 

Next followed the atonement made in the Holy place (Lev. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 123 

16: i6), no doubt corresponding with the process within the 
Holy of Holies (compare Ex. 30 : 10). 

Lastly followed the atonement for the altar of burnt-offer- 
ing (Lev. 16 : 18). 

The atonement for the priesthood, the sanctuary, and the 
congregation, according to its three divisions, being thus com- 
pleted, the other goat (Lev. 16: 20 compared with verse 10) 
on which the lot for Azazel fell, was brought before the altar of 
burnt- offering, and presented alive before the Lord, "to make 
atonement for (over) him" (Lev. 16: 10), which controverted 
words are probably to be explained "to cover him" (the goat), 
viz. by the application of the blood of the slaughtered goat. 
The proceedings at the purification of the recovered leper (Lev. 
14: 6), and of the infected house (Lev. 14: 15), elucidate this 
point. Here two birds were taken ; the one was killed and the 
other, after being dipped in the blood of the first, was let loose 
into the open field. So, in the case under consideration, by the 
the application of the blood of the first goat to the second, it 
was declared, that only in virtue of the atonement effected by 
the blood of the first goat are the people in condition to send 
away their sins as forgiven to Azazel. The act of sending away 
the goat is described in Lev. 16: 21, 22. Thus were the sins 
upon the goat to be, as it were, banished to a place removed 
from all contact with the people. 

For a description of what took place after the goat was sent 
into the wilderness, see Lev. 16 : 23 — 28. 

§ 141. Signification of the Ritual of the Day of Atonement. 

The greatest prominence must be given in this ritual to that 
element in the ritual by which an atonement for sin is effected, 
and to that portion of the the sacrificial transaction which spe- 
cifically subserves this end. 

Wherein lies the efficacy of the expiation made on the Day 
of Atonement by means of the blood of the victim ? In the fact 
that on this occasion the blood was brought as near to God as 
possible, before His throne, and indeed within the veil, into 
that central seat of His abode at other times unapproachable, 



124 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

thus making satisfaction for the people in the very place where 
the accusing- law within the ark testified against them. The 
people, knowing themselves to be accepted with favor through 
the atoning blood, were assured of the continued dwelling of 
God in their midst and therewith of the continuance of their 
state of grace. 

Although Oehler concedes that the idea of vicarious pun- 
ishment (poena vicaria) is not foreign to the ritual of the Old 
Testament, he nevertheless denies that the animal sacrificed 
vicariously suffers the penalty of death. On this much contro- 
verted point the writer entirely differs with Oehler. With 
Kurtz, Hengstenberg, Kliefoth, Wangemann, Thomasius and 
Philippi, we accept the juridical interpretation of the Old Tes- 
tament sacrifice in which the slaughtering is regarded as a vic- 
arious punishment endured by the sacrifical animal in the stead 
of the person offering it. According to this view the imposition 
of hands may be defined as the consecration to a vicarious, 
penal death ; the slaughtering, as the completion of this penal 
death, by which the blood of the animal was fitted to become 
the medium of expiation ; and the sprinkling of the blood, the 
completion of the expiation itself. Delitzsch, who does not fully 
accept this so-called juridical view, so ably presented by Kurtz, 
nevertheless says that it is "not only the most simple and intel- 
ligible, but also the idea which harmonizes best with the New 
Testament antitype." 

The meaning of the confession of sin made over the second 
goat (Lev. 16: 21) can only be that of a declaration, that past 
sins being forgiven, are now done away with, — are dismissed 
and relegated to the evil spirit, whose realm is situated beyond 
all connection with the abode of the holy people. It is also an 
error to see in the second goat an offering to Azazel. Mosa- 
ism acknowledges no evil power, independent of God, whose 
favor must be in some way secured. The point is not to pro- 
pitiate, but to get rid of Azazel, — to declare to him that the 
nation, now that it has obtained forgiveness of sin, has nothing 
to do with him, the patron of evil. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 125 

Without the Day of Atonement there would be an actual 
gap in the theocratic ordinances. The law, which was contin- 
ually exposing the opposition in which the chosen people 
stood to the holy God through their sinfulness, could not be 
without an institution to show the way in which this opposition 
might be reconciled by an atonement for the congregation, and 
also relatively to secure such reconciliation ; while at the same 
time, being weak through the flesh, it pointed beyond itself to 
that perfect atonement whose result will be the restoration of a 
truly sanctified people (Zech. 3 : 8 — 10 ; Heb. 9 : 6 — 8). 

§ 142, The Levitical Purifications. 

The Israelite, as pertaining to the holy people, was to be 
clean; and therefore when he had, though unavoidably, incurred 
uncleanness, or come in contact with anything unclean, and so 
become unclean, he was to restore his state of cleanness by a 
special act. The chief means of purification was running water, 
which is itself a symbol of life, and therefore called living wa- 
ter (Lev. 14: 5, 50; etc.). In uncleanness of the lower degree, 
the washing of the unclean person or thing and separation till 
sunset were sufficient (Lev. 11 : 24, 25 ; etc.). In uncleanness 
of the higher degree, the separation lasted seven, or in some 
cases fourteen days (Lev. 14). In cases of uncleanness incurred 
through contact with a dead body, a certain water of sprinkling 
was applied, which is itself designated as a sin-offering (Num. 
19: 9, 17). The manner of its preparation is given in Num. 
19. Red was the color symbolizing life and vital energy; scar- 
let the color of splendor ; the animal is a female, the sex that 
brings forth, properly representing life. Cedar as the most 
durable of woods symbolizing incorruption ; while great puri- 
fying power was in ancient times always ascribed to hyssop 
(Lev. 19: 6). Thus the water of purification was an infusion, 
strenghtened by elements which symbolized vital energy, incor- 
ruption, and purity. 

§ 143. Acts of Purification for removing the Suspicion of Guilt. 
Of an entirely different character were those acts of purifi- 



126 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

cation which related to the denial of suspected crimes, viz., 
adultery and murder. 

First was the jealousy- offering, and the drinking of the wa- 
ter of cursing, treated of in Num.5: 11 — 31. The water in 
this case acquired, through the word and power of God, a 
supernatural power, which, though not to be conceived of as 
magical, really produced, through its influence on the mind, 
pernicious effects upon the body of the guilty, but was harm- 
less to the innocent. 

Secondly, we have the purification of a community from the 
suspicion of blood-guiltiness when a slain man was found in the 
neighborhood, and the murderer could not be discovered 
(Deut. 21 : 1 — 9). The blood shed was to be removed from 
the midst of the people, and this was effected by the symboli- 
cal infliction of capital punishment upon the heifer, — a case ot 
vicarious punishment, — and thus satisfaction was made to 
Divine justice. 

III. The Sacred Seasons (§144 — 156). 

1. The Saered Seasons in General (% 144 — 146). 
§ 144. The Survey of the sacred Seasons. 

The sanctification of the course of time in general was ef- 
fected by the morning and evening sacrifice (see § 131). Be- 
sides this, however, certain sacred seasons were appointed : 1) 
The seventh day of the week, or Sabbath ; 2) The new moons, 
of which the seventh was invested with a festal character, and 
bore the name of the Day of Trumpets ; 3) The three festival 
pilgrimages, when the whole congregation assembled at the 
sanctuary, viz. : a) The Passover, with which the annual cycle 
of festivals commenced in spring, celebrated on the evening ol 
the 14th of the month Abib or Nisan, the first month of the 
Mosaic year (Ex. 12 : 2) ; b) The Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), 
seven weeks later ; c) The Feast of the Tabernacles, from the 
15th day of the seventh month (Tisri) onward ; 4) The seventh 
month Tisri, besides being distinguished by the festal charac- 
ter of its new moon, included also the Day of Atonement ; 5) 
Every seventh year was also sacred as the Sabbatical year, 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 12? 

and every seventh sabbatical year as the Year of Jubilee. The 
laws concerning sacred seasons in general are contained in Ex. 
23 : 10 — 17 ; Lev. 23 and 25, Num. 28 and 29, and Deut. 16. 
§ 145. Reasons which determine the Times of the Feasts. 

The number seven, which from Gen. 2 : 2, 3 onward is the 
sign of Divine perfection, forms the fundamental type for the 
regulation of the sacred seasons. It directly determines the 
order of the sabbatical seasons, and also exerts an influence upon 
the order of feasts. But what made these feasts, feasts, and 
the Sabbaths holy days, was not human choice, guided by the 
order of nature, but the enactments of the covenant God, who 
on the one hand preserved by these festivals a lively remem- 
brance of the great facts of His deliverance and guidance ot 
His people (Ex. 13: 9; Lev. 23: 42, 43; etc.), and on the other 
admonished the people to follow their earthly vocation to an 
agricultural life, in constant dependance on the Giver of all the 
blessings of nature, and to regard these blessings as inalienably 
connected with the ordinances of the covenant. 
§ 146. The Celebration of the Holy Days. 

On the celebration of the holy days, the following general 
remarks may be made : 

1. Besides the sacrifices prescribed for every day, certain 
special public sacrifices, differing in character according to the 
several festivals also took place. The laws respecting these are 
found in Num. 28 and 29. 

2. On the seven a?i?iual feast days (see § 145), rest from 
labor was commanded as well as on the weekly Sabbath. 

3. The positive element in the celebration of the weekly 
Sabbaths and the sabbatical feast-days, is contained in the reg- 
ularly recurring formula "holy convocation" of Lev. 23 and 
Num. 28. This expression signifies that the people were to 
come to the sanctuary to worship ( Ezek. 46 : 3, 9). A univer- 
sal command, however, to appear in the sanctuary only took 
place with regard to the three festal pilgrimages, and then was 
given only to the male population (Ex. 23: 14, 17; Deut. 16: 

16). 



128 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOtJEDIA. 

4. They who came to the feasts were not to appear before 
the Lord empty (Deut. 16: 16, 17). 

2. The Sabbatical Seasons (§ 147—152). 

a) The Weekly Sabbath (147—149). 

§ 147. Antiquity and Origin of the Sabbath. 

The Sabbath is, according to the Pentateuch, of purely Mo- 
saic origin. In Gen. 2: 3, indeed, the hallowing of the seventh 
day, but not the promulgation among men of a command to 
observe it, is connected with creation. In patriarchal times, too, 
we meet with no trace of the Sabbath. The first injunction 
concerning the sabbath appears in Ex. 16: 5, 22 — 30, on the 
occasion of the gathering of the manna, and in a form which 
seems to indicate that the Sabbath was not then known to the 
people. The expression used in Ex. 20: 8, "Remember" is 
not intended to recall the Sabbath to mind as an ancient insti- 
tution, but requires the people to be from that time onward 
mindful of the Sabbath-day (in Deut. 5 : 12 the word observe 
occurs). Neh. 9 : 14 also testifies to the Mosaic origin of the 
Sabbath. It is true that the notion of sacredness of the number 
seven was very widely diffused in antiquity; but this may be 
sufficiently explained by its frequent and significant occurrence 
in natural events ; especially in the planetary system of the an- 
cients, and the course ol the moon. Still even the week and 
seven days was by no means universally diffused. The Mosaic 
Sabbath is, moreover, peculiar in its independence of the 
changes of the moon, and in its significance, as an institution 
consecrated to Jehovah, and resting upon the covenant relation 
of Israel to Jehovah. 

§ 148. The Idea of the Sabbath. 

In conformity with what has already been advanced, the 
meaning of the Sabbath is to be known from the Old Testa- 
ment alone. The chief passages relating to it are Gen. 2:3; 
Ex.20: 8 — 11; 31: 12 — 17. We learn: 1) That man, like 
God, is to work and to rest ; this human life is to be a copy of 
Divine life ; 2) As Divine labor terminates in happy rest, so, 
too, human labor is not to run on in resultless circles, but to 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 129 

terminate in a happy harmony of existence. The idea of the 
Sabbath, however, extends further. The whole course of human 
history is not to run on in dreary endlessness, but its events 
are to have a positive termination, — are to find a completion in 
harmonious and God-given order. The Divine rest of the se- 
venth day of creation, which has no evening, hovers over the 
world's progress, that it may at last absorb it into itself. It is 
upon the very fact that the rest of God is also to be a rest for 
man, and that God has declared this by the institution of the 
Sabbath, that the Apostle in Heb. 4 founds a proof for the pro- 
position, "there remaineth therefore a sabbath rest for the peo- 
ple of God " (Heb. 4 : 9). 

The full purport, however, of the idea of the Sabbath is not 
attained until the dominion of sin and death, which has entered 
into the development of mankind, is taken into account. 

§ 149. The Celebration of the Sabbath. 

The Sabbath is, therefore, a Divine institution, or, to speak 
more correctly, a gift of Divine grace, for the sanctification of 
the people (Ezek. 20 : 12). In the Old Testament, the Sabbath, 
so far from presenting any painful aspect of renunciation, is re- 
garded as a delight (Isa. 58: 13), a day of joy (compare the 
song for the Sabb.ith, Ps. 92). 

It is in this sense we must regard the enactments with re- 
spect to the celebration of the Sabbath. The first point is the 
resting from labor, to which belongs not merely the intermis- 
sion of servile work, but also the prohibition to kindle fires in 
their dwellings for the preparation of food (Ex. 16: 23; 35 : 
3). Capital punishment (Ex. 31 : 14; 35 : 2) by stoning (Num. 
T 5 : 35) was attached to the transgression of the enactments, as 
it was to that of all the fundamental laws of the theocracy. The 
positive celebration of the Sabbath arose from its appointment 
for worship. As it was possible for only a small portion of the 
people to visit the central sanctuary, meetings for hearing and 
meditating on the Divine Word may have taken place in very 
early times, but the first trace of such assemblies is found in 2 
Kings 4 : 23. 



130 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

§ 150. b) The New Moon Sabbath. 

On the approach of the new moon, the Sanhedrim assem- 
bled at Jerusalem to receive from him who had seen the first 
appearance of the moon's sickle, the information which was then 
transmitted by signals throughout the country. The ordinary 
new moons were only subordinate festivals, but the seventh new 
moon, that of the month Tisri in the autumn, on the contrary, 
was a Sabbatical day. Its proper name, the day of trumpet- 
sounding, seems to indicate that the use of trumpets in public 
worship took place with special solemnity on this day. Accord- 
ing to Num. 10 : 9, 10 this sounding of the trumpet reminded 
the people that God was thinking of them. 

e) The Sabbatical Year and the Year of Jubilee (§ 151, 152). 
§ 151. Legal Enactments. 
Four laws are given relating to the Sabbatical year : 

1. The general command in Ex. 23: 10, n. Care for the 
poor is the point of view under which the Sabbatical year is 
here chiefly regarded. 

2. The more detailed law in Lev. 25 : 1 — 7, which more 
precisely designates this ordinance as a rest of the land unto 
Jehovah. The point of view here taken is that the produce oi 
the sabbatic year is to be the common property for man and 
beast. 

3. An essentially new enactment is contained in the third 
law (Deut. 15 : 1 — 11). The question here, again, is the special 
import of the sabbatical year to the poor. For in the seventh 
year every creditor was to release the loan he had lent to his 
neighbor. 

4. The fourth law respecting the sabbath year (Deut. 31 : 
10 — 13) enjoins that at the Feast of Tabernacles in the year of 
release, the law shall be read in the public assembly of the peo- 
ple in the sanctuary. In this a significant hint is given as to 
how the seventh year just entered upon ought to be hallowed. 

Seven such sabbatic years terminated with the year of Ju- 
bilee. The passage Lev. 25 : 8 — 10, is most naturally under- 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 131 

stood as declaring that the year of Jubilee is to follow the 
seventh sabbatical year. 

With regard to the celebration of the year of Jubilee, we no- 
tice first the feature it had in common with the sabbatical year, 
as a cessation from agricultural labor (Lev. 25 : 11, 12). The 
feature peculiar to the year of Jubilee was the "proclaiming of 
liberty throughout the land" (Lev. 25: 10). In this year of 
liberty there took place, as it were, a new birth of the state, at 
which all such civil impediments as were opposed to the theo- 
cratic principles were abolished. One of these was the bondage 
of Israelitish citizens (Lev. 25 : 39 — 42). At this time also the 
restoration of hereditary estates took place (Xev. 25: 23 — 28). 
§ 152. Import and Practibility of the Institutions of the Sabbatical Year 
and the Year of Jubilee. 

Much has been said at different times, of the agricultural 
and political advantages of this institution. But of all this 
the law says not a word ; it simply refers to the Divine bless- 
ing with which obedience was to be rewarded (Lev. 25 : 21, 
22). It is upon the thought that man, acknowledging in act 
God's higher right of property (Lev. 25 : 23), should withhold 
his hand from cultivating the land, and place it wholly at the 
Lord's disposal for His blessing, that the whole ordinance is 
founded. Israel was thus taught that the earth, though made for 
man, was yet not made merely that he might possess himself 
of its increase, but that it might be holy to the Lord, and also 
partake of His blessed rest. The Sabbath year, therefore, typi- 
cally points to the time when creation shall be delivered from 
the bondage of corruption (Rom. 8 : 21). 

The year of Jubilee, by which the sabbatic cycle was com- 
pleted, has, moreover, its own specific import in the idea of re- 
lease, and of the reinstatement of the theocracy in its original 
and divinely appointed order, in which all were, as the servants 
of God, to be free, and each was to be assured of his earthly 
maintenance, by being restored to the enjoyment of the inher- 
itance allotted to his family for this purpose. 

In the prophecy, Isa. 61 : 1 — 3, the year of Jubilee is as the 



132 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

year of restoration regarded as typical of the times of the Mes- 
siah, in which the discords of the world's history are to be re- 
solved into the harmony of the Divine life. And hence Christ 
designates himself as the fulnller of this prophecy (Luke 4: 21) ; 
while Heb. 4 : 9, by calling the perfected Kingdom of God the 
Sabbath of the people of God, also refers to the type of the 
year of Jubilee. 

Although there were great difficulties in observing the Sab- 
batical year, still the system was by no means impracticable, if 
the people were willing to sacrifice all selfish considerations to 
the Divine will. The omission of the ordinances, was, however, 
already contemplated in Lev. 26 : 35, while how far they were 
really carried into practice in post -Mosaic times does not ap- 
pear. It is evident from 2 Chron. 36 : 21, where it is said that 
the land lay desolate during the captivity seventy years to make 
up for its sabbath years, that the celebration of the sabbatical 
year had been omitted during the last centuries before the cap- 
tivity. After the captivity, the people, under the influence of 
Nehemiah, bound themselves to the observance of the sabbati- 
cal years (Neh. 10: 31 ), which, being frequently mentioned by 
Josephus, must have been henceforth the general practice. 

3. The Three Pilgrimage Feasts (§153—156). 

a) The Passover (§153, 154). 

§ 153. Enactments concerning the Passover. 

The enactments relating to the Passover are found in Ex. 
12: 1—28, 43—49: 13: 3—10; 23: 15; Lev. 23: 5—8; Num. 
28: 16 — 25; Deut. 16; 1 — 8. In Ex. 12: 1 — 20 we have the 
entire law of the passover, as delivered to Moses and Aaron 
before the fact with which this feast was to be connected had 
taken place, — a circumstance, the consideration of which will 
obviate many apparet difficulties. 

During the whole of the festival nothing leavened might be 
eaten (Deut. 16 : 3), and on the 14th of Abib or Nisan all leaven 
and leavened bread were cleared out of the house. In general 
the preparations for the repast took place on the 14th, and the 
repast itself, which formed the commencement of the feast of 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 133 

unleavened bread, on the 15th. The whole animal was eaten 
that same night, not a bone of it being broken, with unleavened 
loaves and bitter herbs. In remembrance of what occurred at 
the institution of the Passover, the head of the household re- 
lated the history of the deliverance of Israel during that night. 
The Hallel was chanted during the repast by the assembled 
family (Ps. 113 and 114 after the second cup and before eating 
the lamb, and Ps. 115 — 118 before the fourth cup). 

§ 154. Significance of the Feast of the Passover. 

The significance of the Feast of the Passover was, generally 
speaking, an historical one ; it was celebrated in remembrance 
of the deliverance of Israel from Egypt. In a certain aspect 
the feast was also the consecration of the beginning of harvest 
(Lev. 23 : 11, 15). When we inquire into the special import ol 
this feast, we must, first of all, decide whether the Passover 
transaction proper is to be regarded in the light of a sacrifice. 
We would answer the question in the affirmative, because the 
Passover is expressly exhibited in a sacrificial point of view in 
Ex. 12 : 27 ("it is the sacrifice of the Lord's passover"), in 
Num. 9: 7, 13 ("to offer the oblation of the Lord in its ap- 
pointed season"). So too it is said in 1 Cor. 5 : 7, "For our 
passover also hath been sacrificed, even Christ." 

The next question is, under what class of sacrifices is the 
Passover to be comprised ? 

Hengstenberg maintains that it belongs to the class of sin- 
offerings. "The Passover is a sin-offering in the fullest and 
most especial sense." Oehler maintains that the fact that it is a 
repast places the Passover in the class of peace-offerings ; and 
since there can be no peace-offering without an atonement, 
which is effected by the sprinkling of the blood, the Passover 
presupposes an act of expiation effected by the application ol 
the blood of the paschal lamb. The application of the blood to 
the door-posts of the house, which formed the place of sacrifice 
at the first passover, had the same significance as the atone- 
ment and purification of the sanctuary with the blood of the 
Day of Atonement (Lev. 16: 16). Oehler, however, denies 



134 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

that the paschal lamb suffered death vicariously, and in this 
view we altogether differ with him, for in the New Testament 
the passover lamb is a type of Christ (i Cor. 5 : 7), whose sac- 
rificial death secures deliverance from the wrath of God for 
His Church. 

§ 155. b) The Feast of Weeks (Pentecost). 

The Feast of Weeks (Pentecost) owes its name to the fact 
that it was to be celebrated seven weeks after Passover. It was 
also known as the feast of harvest, or of first fruits. In the 
Pentateuch it has the significance of a harvest thanksgiving. 
An historical meaning was first given to this feast by the later 
Jews, who made it refer to the giving of the law upon Mount 
Sinai, which is said by the Jewish tradition to have taken place 
on the fiftieth day after the departure from Egypt, while Ex. 19: 
1 states quite generally that it was in the third month. 

The central point of the religious celebration of this festival 
of one day's duration, was the offering of the two loaves of first- 
fruits for the whole people. As the wave sheaf at the Pass- 
over was a sign that harvest had begun, so were these wave 
loaves, a sign that the harvest was completed. With the offer- 
ing of these loaves were combined large burnt, sin, and peace 
offerings (Lev. 23 : 17, 18). The feast was enlivened by festal 
repasts, which were furnished by the free will offerings (Deut. 
16: 10, 11). 

§ 156. e) The Feast of Tabernacles. 

The Feast of Tabernacles was kept on the seventh month 
(Tisri), from the fifteenth day onward and lasted seven days. 
To these was added an eighth, the Atsereth (probably conclu- 
sion), which undoubtedly had a reference to the close of the 
whole annual cycle of feasts. The historic import of the Feast 
of Tabernacles was to remind the people, by a seven days' 
dwelling in booths made of boughs, of the wandering of their 
fathers in the wilderness (Lev. 23 : 42, 43). It was the great- 
est feast of rejoicing of the year, and provided with more num- 
erous sacrifices than the others (Num. 29: 12 — 34). Very 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 135 

splendid ceremonies were subsequently added to it, especially 
the daily libation of water, probably with reference to Isa. 1 2 : 
3, and the illumination of the court on the first day of the 
feast, — customs to which perhaps the words of Christ, John 7 : 
37 ; 8 : 12, may refer. 

Thus the festal half of the Israelitish ecclesiastical year 
coincided with the season in which the annual bounties of na- 
ture were gathered ; while during the wintry half of the year, 
on the contray, the course of the Sabbaths and the new moons 
was, according to the Mosaic ritual, uninterrupted by festivals. 

PART II. PROPHETISM (§157 — 2 34-)- 

First Section. The Development of the Theocracy from the 
Death of foshua to the Close of the Old Testament Revelation 
(§ 157— !93)- 

I. The Times of the Judges (§157 — 163). 
1. The Disintegration of the Theoeracy till the Times of Samuel (§ 157 — 
159). 

% 157. Course of Events. Import of the Office of Judge. 

The history of the period of the Judges exhibits a constant 
alternation between the apostacy of the people and their conse- 
quent chastisement by the Divine power, on the one hand, and 
the return of the people to their God and the Divine deliver- 
ances therewith connected, on the other. 

In times of oppression, when the children of Israel cried 
unto the Lord (Judg. 3: 9, 15; 4: 3; etc.), individual men — 
the Judges — arose, who aroused by the Spirit of Jehovah, turned 
back the hearts of the people to their God, revived in them the 
remembrance of God's dealing with them in past times, and 
then broke the hostile yoke under which they were suffering. 
The office of Judge was neither permanent nor hereditary, but 
purely personal. Called to a prominent position by the neces- 
sities of the times, they acted with energy in the affairs of the 
individual tribes at the head of which they were placed, but 
exercised no abiding influence upon the nation, which, on the 
contrary, relapsed into its former course, when its burdens were 
lightened or the Judge was dead (Judg. 2 : 16 — 19). 



136 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA, 

§ 158. Religious Condition : Deeline of the Theocratic Institutions. 

Are we justified, in speaking of a decline of the theocratic 
institutions, and does the Book of Judges really presuppose a 
legislation and a history such as the Pentateuch and the Book 
of Joshua attest? (Great stress has always been laid upon this 
point by the opponents of the Mosaic authorship of the Penta- 
teuch.) So far as religious institutions in particular are con- 
cerned, it must be observed that it is foreign to the entire 
purpose of the Book of Judges to enter into the subject, and 
consequently the inference that institutions not mentioned 
therein would not have existed, is utterly unjustified. This 
applies equally to the Book of Joshua, which confessedly pre- 
supposes the Pentateuch. There are, however, quite sufficient 
data in the Book of Judges to show that although during this 
period and down to Samuel the injunctions and ordinances 
of the law were for the most part neglected, the theocratic in- 
stitutions, as they are said to have existed under Moses and 
Joshua, are nevertheless in all essential matters presupposed. 

The main question is : Does the Book of Judges know of a 
central sanctuary as the only authorized place of sacrifice ? We 
answer: The national sanctuary, the tabernacle, was during the 
times of the Judges permanently located at Shiloh ( Josh. 18 : i ; 
19 : 51 ; Judg. 18 : 31 ; 1 Sam. 1 ; etc.). It was there that the 
annual festivals were solemnized (Judg. 21 : 19; 1 Sam. 1 : 3), 
and the regular sacrificial worship was offered (1 Sam. 2: 12, 
13). A second legimate tabernacle in some other locality is not 
once spoken of. 

The fact that the Books of Judges and Samuel take but lit- 
tle notice of the individual sacrificial laws in the Pentateuch, is 
easily accounted for by the nature of their contents. 

It has also been claimed that the Book of Judges knows 
nothing of the calling of the tribe of Levi, as appointed in the 
Pentateuch. On the contrary, we regard it as a prominent and 
remarkable fact, that the Levites appear in the Book of Judges 
in exactly that position which Deuteronomy assumes, when it 
always classes them with the strangers on account of their pov- 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLi) TESTAMENT. 137 

erty. Nor is it difficult to show why there were as yet no or- 
ganized Levitical services. The services appointed to the 
Levites in the Pentateuch ceased with the wanderings of the 
tabernacle, and nothing was enacted in the law with respect to 
their further employment ; while the period of the disintegra- 
tion of the theocracy was one utterly unadapted for the pro- 
duction of new ordinances of worship. 
§ 159. Religious Syncretism of this Period. 

The commixture with other religions was manifested in a 
two fold manner during the age of the Judges, i) By a blend- 
ing of the worship of Jehovah with heathenism, on the part of 
those Israelites who had fallen into Canaanitish idolatry. 2) By 
the fact that even among those who adhered to the worship ol 
Jehovah, the religious consciousness was more or less obscured 
by heathen ideas. Hence the image-worship of Micah and the 
Danites. 

Here likewise the narrative concerning Jephthah belongs 
(Judges 1 1 : 28 — 40). The opinion which prevailed in Jewish 
antiquity and among the Fathers of the Church, and which 
was also embraced by Luther, and many moderns, is that 
Jephthah really slew his daughter, and offered her as a burnt 
offering upon the altar. The view that Jephthah only conse- 
crated his daughter to the service of the sanctuary in a state 
of life-long virginity, was first urged by certain mediaeval 
Rabbins (Kimchi, Ralbag, etc.), and has since been maintained 
by Hengstenberg, Cassel, Gerlach, Keil, and others, who refer 
to Ex. 38: 8 and 1 Sam. 2: 22, where women are mentioned as 
serving in the sanctuary. According to this view, the fulfill- 
ment of the vow would lie in the words in Judg. n: 39, which 
must not be taken as pluperfect ("and she had not known 
man"), but as an account of what now took place ("and she 
knew no man"). Oehler grants that there are some things 
in the narrative favorable to this view, but nevertheless rightly 
maintains that this interpretation is at variance with the plain 
meaning of the words, "who did with her according to his vow 
which he had vowed", which in their reference to Judg. n : 31 



138 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

cannot relate to a merely spiritual sacrifice. It cannot, how- 
ever, be inferred from the narrative that human sacrifices were 
at this time legal in the worship of Jehovah, the matter being 
evidently represented as a horrible exception. 

2. Restoration of the Theocratie Unity by Samuel. Growth of Prophe- 
tism. Foundation of the Monarchy (§ 160 — 163). 

§ 160. The Philistine Oppression. Changes effected by Samuel. 
The appearance of Samuel, and the growth of Prophetism 
by his means, form the turning-point of the period of the Jud- 
ges. The new state of affairs had been prepared for, partly 
by Philistine oppression, which was both a longer and a 
heavier judgment than any with which the people had yet been 
visited, and partly by the judgeship of Eli. 

The person of Samuel, moved as he was by the prophetic 
spirit, became the centre of the nation's life. The sanctuary 
at Shiloh being rejected, and the agency of the highpriesthood 
suspended, the mediatorship between God and His people 
rested with the prophet, who, though not of the priestly race, 
but by descent a Levite of the region of Ephraim, now per- 
formed sacrificial services in the presence of the people (i 
Sam. 7: 9, 10). As the central sanctuary was no longer exist- 
ing, we now find various places of sacrifice, as the high places 
at Ramah (1 Sam. 9: 13), Bethel and Gilgal (1 Sam. 10: 3; 
11: 15; 15: 21). 

The day of penitence and prayer for which Samuel 
assembled the people at Mizpah, in the tribe of Benjamin, after 
he had put down idolatry, became, by the help of Jehovah, 
who acknowledged the prayer of his prophet, a day of victory 
over their enemies, and the beginning of their deliverance (1 
Sam. 7: 5 — 17). Samuel was henceforth judge of the whole 
nation ; and the prophetic office began from this time to 
develop its agency, on which account the history of Prophe- 
tism, properly speaking, dates from Samuel (Acts. 3: 24). 

§ 161. Nature, Importance, and first Beginnings of the Prophetic Of flee. 

In the discussion of the institution and duties of the 

prophetic office our point of departure must be the funda- 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 139 

mental passage, Deut. 18: 9 — 22. The character of the 
prophetic, differed entirely from that of the priestly office. 
It was not, like the latter, confined to one tribe and one 
family, nor, generally speaking to an external institution, 
though a certain succession subsequently took place. 

The prophet was to prove his divine mission, not so 
much by signs and wonders, for the performance of which 
even a false prophet might receive power, as by his confes- 
sion of the God who redeemed Israel and gave them the law 
(Deut. 13: 1 — 5). Again, what the prophet spoke was to 
come to pass ; that is, the prophetic word was to be corrobo- 
rated by its historical fulfilment. 

The prophetic office was designed 1) to prevent a mere 
lifeless transmission of legal injunctions, and 2) to cast a light 
on the future of the people, and to disclose to them the Divine 
counsels, whether for their warning or comfort. 

The prophet is the man of the Spirit. By the spirit of 
Jehovah is the Divine word put into the mouth of the prophet, 
hence also his name Nabhi. The classical passage as to the 
meaning of the word Nabhi is Ex. 4 : 14 — 16 taken in connec- 
tion with Ex. 7:1. The Nahbi is the interpreter, the one who 
speaks for another ; who utters the words that another has put 
into his mouth. The gift of prophecy is that which institutes 
a direct personal intercourse between God and man; and pro- 
phecy thus becomes, through God's self- witness to the prophet, 
the type of the teaching of His people by God Himself under 
the new covenant (Jer. 31 : 34 ; John 6 : 45). The operation of 
the Divine Spirit, however, upon the prophet, was not merely 
intellectual, but one which renewed the whole man. The pro- 
phet became another man (1 Sam. 10: 6), and received another 
heart (1 Sam. 10 : 9). 

The first beginnings of prophecy reach back to the times 
before Samuel. For Moses was himself a prophet (Deut. 34 : 
19), and his sister Miriam is also called a prophetess (Ex. 15: 
20; Num. 12 : 2). But in the earlier times of the Judges, the 
gift of prophecy appeared but occasionally (Deborah, Judg. 4 : 



140 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

4, 6, 14; I Sam. 3: 27). There must also, as may be inferred 
from 1 Sam. 9 : 9, have been from time to time seers, with whom 
counsel was taken in private affairs, but of whom a more ex- 
tensive sphere of operation cannot be assumed. 

It cannot be proved from Amos 2 : 11 that the schools of the 
prophets existed before Samuel. 

§ 162. The so-ealled Schools of the Prophets. The Prophetic Office of 
Watchman. 

There is scarcely any subject of Old Testament history and 
theology which could formerly boast of having excited so large 
a share of interest and investigation as the so-called schools of 
the prophets, which made their appearance at only two periods 
of Israelitish history, viz., in the days of Samuel, and in the 
kingdom of the ten tribes in the times of Elijah and Elisha. 

By this assembly of prophets around Samuel, we understand 
an association of prophets drawn together by the leading of the 
Spirit, and among whom the prophetic gift was cherished by 
sacred exercises performed in common. Music was designed, 
on the one hand, to prepare the mind for the apprehension of 
the Divine voice (compare 2 Kings 3: 15) ; on the other, to be 
a vehicle for the utterance of the prophetic inspiration. (There 
is so close a connection between sacred song and prophecy, 
that the former is itself called prophesying (1 Chron. 25 : 2, 3) ; 
and the chief singers appointed by David (1 Chron. 25: 1, 5 ; 
2 Chron. 29 : 30) are called prophets and seers. 

This prophetic office, after Samuel had founded the king- 
dom, and delivered up to the king the authority he had exer- 
cised as judge, may be denned as that of watchmen to the 
theocracy. This office of watchman was to be exercised both 
toward the nation in general and toward the holders of theo- 
cratic offices in particular, especially the king. It was also 
their office to write the theocratic history. 

§ 163. The Foundation of the Israelitish Kingdom. Consecration of the 
King. 

The request of the people for a king, in the sense in which it 
was made to Samuel, was a denial of the sovereignty of 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 141 

Jehovah, a renunciation of their own glory as the theocratic 
people, and a misconception of the power and faithfulness of 
the covenant God, inasmuch as a faulty constitution, and not 
their own departure from God and His law, was regarded as 
the cause of their misfortunes ; while their hope of a better 
future was therefore founded upon the institution of an earthly 
government, and not upon the return of the people to their 
God. 

The consecration to the kingship was effected, according 
to ancient and recognized usage, by anointing, a rite performed 
by Samuel on Saul (i Sam. 10 : i), and subsequently on David 
(i Sam. 16 : 3), and repeated in the case of the latter after his 
actual entrance upon the government (2 Sam. 2 : 4 ; 5 : 3), by 
the elders of the people. 

Anointing was a symbol of endowment with the Divine 
Spirit (1 Sam. 10: 1, 9; 16: 13), the gift which is the condi- 
tion of a wise, just, and powerful government, — all ability to 
rule righteously being but an outflow of Divine wisdom (Prov. 
8: 15, 16). 

1 1 . Period of the Undivided Kingdom (§1 64 — 170). 
§164. l.Saul. 

The history of Israel during the time of the undivided king- 
dom is separated by the reigns of its three Kings into three sec- 
tions essentially differing in character. 

The reign of Saul at once displays the Kingdom in conflict 
with the theocratic principle maintained by the prophets. The 
narrative in the First Book of Samuel, how Saul after being 
forsaken by God, advanced step by step to his tragical end, and 
the Books of Samuel in general, are the most complete portion 
of Old Testament history ; while the vivid and graphic de- 
scriptions, and the sharpness and delicacy with which the chiet 
characters are portrayed, are excellent even in an artistic point 
of view. 



142 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

2. David (§ 165, 166). 

§ 165. History of his Reign, his Theocratic Position and personal Relig- 
ious development. 

David had reigned seven and a half years in Hebron before 
he received the submission of all Israel in a form in which the 
theocratic principle was expressly recognized (2 Sam. 5 : 2, 3). 
Thus began the powerful reign of David, whose Kingship be- 
comes the type of the Kingdom of God which overcomes the 
world. Hence all the attributes of the latter are ascribed to 
him : he is destined to subdue the heathen (Ps. 18 : 43 — 47) ; 
his dominion is to extend to the end of the earth (Ps. 2:8; 
72 : 8 ; etc.), and is of continual and eternal duration (2 Sam. 
7 : 16 ; 23 : 5 ; etc.) The Kingship, as administered by David, 
appears neither as a necessary evil nor an improved constitu- 
tion, but as a new ethical power. The King becomes also the 
representative of the people, and the idea of Divine Sonship, 
which in the first place appertains to the people, is transferred 
to him. Kingship in the person of David exhibits also a cer- 
tain measure of the priestly character; for David appeared for 
the people before the Lord with sacrifices and intercessions, and 
brought back to them the Lord's blessing (2 Sam. 6 : 18). 
(This, was done, however, without encroaching upon the spec- 
ial duties of the priesthood). It is a peculiarity of David, 
like Moses and Samuel, that to a certain degree he unites in 
himself three theocratic dignities; for the gift of prophecy also 
was bestowed on him, the Spirit of God spoke by him, and the 
words of God were on his tongue (2 Sam. 23: 2). 

In the history of revelation, the eternal covenant of God with 
David and his seed (Ps. 89: 20 — 37) now enters as a new ele- 
ment (2 Sam. 23 : 5); the full manifestation of the kingdom of 
God being henceforth combined with the realization of the 
"sure mercies of David" (Isa. 55 : 3) ; and thus upon the founda- 
tion of the theocratic notion of kingship arose the prophecy of 
its antitypical perfection in Messiah. 

It is not, however, solely in virtue of his theocratic position, 
but also by reason of his personal religious development, that 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 143 

David is an important character in the history of the Old Testa- 
ment. To a greater degree than any other Old Testament 
character, he experienced the restlessness and desolation of a 
soul burdened with the consciousness of guilt, the longing after 
reconciliation with God, the struggle after purity and renova- 
tion of heart, the joy of forgiven sin, the heroic, all- conquering 
power of confidence in God, the ardent love of a gracious heart 
for God ; and has given in his Psalms imperishable testimony 
as to what is the fruit of the law and what the fruit of faith in 
man. 

It is impossible to rate too highly the treasure that Israel 
possessed in the Psalms, that copy book of the saints, as Luther 
called them ; nor can it be doubted that it was chieflyby means 
of the Psalms that the Word of God dwelt in the homes of Is- 
rael, and that the knowledge of the sacred history was kept up 
among the people. 

§ 166. The Form of Worship under David. 

David manifested an active zeal for public worship, which 
manifested itself, in the first place, with respect to the organi- 
zation of the priesthood. David regularly organized the 
priestly service, by dividing the priests into twenty-four classes, 
of which sixteen belonged to the line of Eleazar and eight to 
that of Ithamar (i Chron. 24: 3 — 5) Each class had a presi- 
dent at its head, and had to officiate for a week, from Sabbath 
to Sabbath (2 Chron. 23 : 4). The order of the classes was de- 
termined by lot (1 Chron. 24: 7 — 19). 

David also organized the service of the Levites. Opportun- 
ity was afforded by the introduction of music into the public 
worship (2 Chron. 29 : 25). By this service of song, by which 
words as well as acts were made prominent in public worship, 
the spirituality of the temple service was increased. Towards the 
close of his life, David, with a view to the needs of the future 
temple, arranged a more complete organization of Levitical 
services, dividing the 38,000 Levites who were at that time 
thirty years old and upwards into four classes (1 Chron. 23: 
3 — 5), three of whom had charge of the service of the sanctuary 



144 TfiEOLOGtCAL ENCYCLOPEDIA, 

viz., i) the servants of the priests (24,000) ; 2) singers and 
musicians (4,000) ; 3) door keepers (4,000) ; and to the fourth 
class (6,000), called officers and judges, was delivered the care 
of external affairs (1 Chron. 26 : 29). It is self evident that the 
arrangements instituted by David could not be fully carried out 
till the completion of the temple by Solomon, as is indeed ex- 
pressly stated in (2 Chron. 8: 14, 15). 

3. Solomon (§ 167—170). 

%167. The Building of the Temple. 

Among Solomon's works, the temple offers special matter 
for consideration with respect to biblical theology. The de- 
scription of the temple (1 Kings 6 and 7) is evidently derived 
from a document compiled by a eye-witness. The proportions 
of the tabernacle were in all essential respects followed in the 
temple building, which was constructed of hewn stone. It was 
divided into two parts, of which the foremost was forty cubits 
long ; the hindmost, the holy of holies, twenty cubits long and 
as many high and broad, thus forming a cube. Before the 
east side of the temple was a porch, the whole breadth of the 
temple, twenty cubits long and ten wide. The temple was sur- 
rounded on its three remaining sides by a secondary erection of 
three tiers of side chambers, designed for stores and treasures. 
The temple was next surrounded by two courts, raised one 
above the other like terraces (2 Kings 21 : 5), of which the in- 
ner one was called the upper court, from its elevated portion 
(Jer. 36 : 10). The second court, the place of worship for the 
people, was probably separated from the first by a railing, thus 
allowing the congregation to witness what was transacted in the 
court of the priests. Thus the separation of the people from the 
holy place was more strictly effected in the temple than in the 
tabernacle. The furniture and vessels of the temple corres- 
ponded on the whole with those of the tabernacle, except that 
they were of increased dimensions, and that some were found 
in the former which were absent from the latter. In the court 
of the priests, as in the court of the tabernacle, stood the altar 
of burnt offering ; in the place of the laver of purification was 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 145 

the so-called brazen sea ; on each side of the court were five 
brazen lavers, for the purification of all that pertained to the 
altar of burnt offering. In the Holy place, the foremost part of 
the temple, as in the tabernacle, were the altar of incense, the 
table of shew-bread (according to 2 Chron. 4 : 8, ten tables) ; 
while instead of the one candlestick of the tabernacle there were 
ten golden candlesticks, five on each side, before the Holy of 
Holies. In the Holy of Holies there were besides the ark, two 
cherubim ten cubits high, whose four wings, each four cubits 
long, spread out horizontally, touched each other in the midst 
over the ark, and reached on the right and left to the two walls 
of the Holy of Holies. 

§ 168. Significance and Dedication of the Temple. 
The symbolical significance of the temple is entirely identi- 
cal with that of the tabernacle. The meaning of the two colos- 
sal columns of brass, called Jachin and Boaz (1 Kings 7 : 15 — 
22 \ evidently is that God has here established His temple on 
a firm loundation, and that it is therefore to be no longer a 
traveling sanctuary like the tabernacle (2 Sam. 7 : 5 — 7). It 
is just because Jehovah no longer dwells in a moving tent, but 
in a settled house ttut the cherubim stand in the temple upon 
the floor of the Holy of Holies, and make the whole place the 
constant abode of the Divine presence. The reason for increas- 
ing the one candlestick and table of shew-bread of the taber- 
nacle to the ten candlesticks and ten tables of Solomon's temple, 
is found in the greater extent of the latter, the number ten be- 
ing also itself a completed unity. 

After the temple was completed, Solomon had the ark 
brought into it, and the tabernacle taken down and deposited, 
together with its sacred utensils, in the temple, probably in the 
side chambers (1 Kings 8 : 4), thus putting an end to the two- 
fold worship. The king then himself dedicated the temple by 
prayer and sacrifice in the seventh month, Tisri (1 Kings 8). 

A sanctuary of permanent countenance seemed now to be 
erected ; and Solomon expressed in his prayer the hope that 



146 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

this house might be a house of prayer for all nations (i Kings 

8: 41—43)- 

Concerning the temple worship, we further learn from i 
Kings 9 : 25 that Solomon offered sacrifices three times a year, 
which refers probably to the pilgrimage leasts. 
§ 169. Hebrew Proverbial Poetry. The Hhakhamim. 
As the sacred lyric poetry of Israel is connected with the 
names of David, so Solomon, whose peaceful times invited the 
Israelitish mind to self- introspection, was the father of the 
Hebrew proverbial poetry (1 Kings 4: 29 — 34), and thus the 
founder of the Old Testament Hhokhma {Wisdom). From 
his time onward there appeared a special class of men under 
the name of Hhakhamim, "the wise', fProv. 1: 6; 22: 17; 
24 : 23 ; etc.), who applied themselves to the consideration of 
the moral relations of life and the manner in which the world 
is ordered. The province of the Old Testament Wisdom was 
different from that of the Law and of Prophecy — it did not extend 
to theocratic enactments and directions. A circle of sages, 
among whom the king was distinguished for the fertility and 
many-sidedness of his genius, and for his acuteness in solving 
enigmatical questions (1 Kings 10: 1), was probably formed at 
Solomon's court. An association of Hhakhamim, employing 
themselves in the collection of literature, must, according to 
Prov. 25 : 1, have also existed under Hezekiah (727 — 696 b. a). 
§ 170. Solomon's External Organizations. The Dark Sides of his Reign. 
Division of the Kingdom. 

Solomon employed the long interval of peace in still further 
carrying out the organization of the state, in rearing various 
edifices and fortifications, especially in Jerusalem itself (1 Kings 
9 : 15 — 19), and in the promotion of industry and commerce 
(1 Kings 8: 26 — 28; 10: 11, 22). This magnificent reign, 
however had its dark side. The king's love of splendor be- 
came more and more oppressive to the people, and he sank 
deeper into effeminacy and luxury, till he at last allowed him- 
self to be seduced by his heathen wives into an open breach 
with theocratic institutions, by erecting for their sakes (1 Kings 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 147 

ii : 4, 5) sanctuaries for strange gods in the immediate neigh- 
borhood of Jerusalem. 

The prophetic order, however, which had, it seems, long re- 
mained in the background, now arose against the king, to 
avenge the insulted majesty of the law. Alter a warning had 
been given to Solomon (i Kings n : n — 13"), Jeroboam, zhigh. 
official of Solomon, received an intimation from the prophet 
Ahijah that ten tribes of Israel were to be severed from the 
house of David and to be united in a separate kingdom under 
his sceptre (1 Kings 11 : 29 — 40). 

After the death of Solomon, ten tribes renounced their al- 
legiance to Rehoboam, and made Jeroboam their king. In 
vain did Rehoboam raise a considerable force from that part 
of the nation which remained faithful to him ; a word from the 
prophet Shemaiah sufficed to disband his whole army (1 Kings 
12: 22 — 24: 2 Chron. 11: 2 — 4). 

The disruption of Israel was from this time irremediable. 
The separated kingdoms took hostile positions with respect to 
each other, and at last consumed their strength in sanguinary 
wars. The external glory of the kingdom was at an end ; but 
prophecy never ceased to direct the expectation of the nation 
to the future reunion of the twelve tribes under one head of 
the house of David. 

III. The Kingdom of the Ten Tribes (§ 171 — 177). 
§ 111. Preliminary Remarks. 

The history of the Ten Tribes, or of the kingdom of Israel, 
comes chiefly under the consideration of biblical theology, as 
exhibiting, the serious nature of Divine retribution. The his- 
tory is full of conspiracies, regicides, and civil wars ; it is a con- 
tinuous testimony to the fact that when once the divinely 
appointed path is forsaken, sin is ever producing fresh sin, and 
that the punishment of one crime is inflicted by another. 

Nine dynasties, including nineteen kings, succeeded each 
other in the 250 years during which the kingdom existed (975 
— 721 b. a), and only two of these dynasties, those of Omri 
and Jehu, possessed the throne for any length of time. 



148 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

/. From Jeroboam I. to the overthrow af the Dynasty of Omri {975—884 
B. C.) (§ 172—174). 

§ 172. Jeroboam I. to Omri. 

The first measure taken by Jeroboam was to make the politi- 
cal separation of the tribes a religious schism. He erected two 
separate sanctuaries, one in the south, at Bethel, and the other 
in the north at Dan, where image worship had already existed 
in the time of the Judges (Judg. 18). One main obstacle to 
the image- worship (i Kings 12 : 28) was formed by the Levites 
dwelling among the ten tribes. Jeroboam therefore drove from 
his realm the Levites and priests (2 Chron. 11 : 13, 14), and in 
their place appointed other priests, ''whosoever would, he con- 
secrated him"(i Kings 13: 33). The moral disorder to which 
this priesthood of the northern kingdom fell a prey is shown 
in Hos. 4: 6 — 14; 6: 9. It is, however, evident from several 
allusions in the prophets Amos and Hosea, that many Mosaic 
forms of worship were practiced in the sanctuaries of the north- 
ern kingdom. For though the date of these prophets is more 
than a century later, it is certain that such forms of Jehovistic 
worship as existed in their days in the kingdom of the ten 
tribes could not have been introduced subsequently to Jero- 
boam, but must have been handed down from ancient times in 
this kingdom. We see that the celebration of the Sabbaths, 
New Moons, and festivals still continued (Hos. 2 : 13; 9: 5; 
Amos 5 : 21 ; 8 : 5, 10) ; that the different kinds of Mosaic sac- 
rifices were in use (Amos 4 : 5 ; 5 : 22) ; that the priests par- 
took of the sin-offerings (Hos. 4 : 8 — 10) ; while Amos 4 : 4 
contains allusion to the tithes of the third year. All this is of 
the greatest importance with respect to the criticism of the 
Mosaic legislation. None of these institutions would have been 
imported from the kingdom of Judah, unless the consecration 
of a high antiquity had rested upon them. 

Four kings reigned during the twenty-five years intervening 
between the death of Jeroboam (955 b. c.) and the ascension of 
Omri (930 B. a), but they all walked in the ways of Jeroboam, 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 149 

§ 178. The Dynasty of Omri (930—884 B. Cy- 
linder Omri, the royal residence was transferred from Tir- 
zah to the city of Samaria, of which he was the builder (i 
Kings 16: 24), and which now became the capital of the king- 
dom. During Omri's reign the worship of Jehovah, though in 
an idolatrous form, had still been the national religion, but the 
marriage of Omri's son, Ahab (919 — 898 B. C.) with the 
Phoenician princess Jezebel, had a disastrous effect upon the 
religious condition of the country. At the instigation of the 
queen the worship of Baal and Ashera was set up, and a tem- 
ple built for Baal in Samaria itself (1 Kings 16: 32, 33). 
Against the prophets of Jehovah a sanguinary persecution arose 
(1 Kings 18 : 4, 15), and they were put to death whenever the 
queen could lay hands on them. 

At this period the conflict with triumphant heathenism was 
waged by the individual in whom was reflected the full glory 
of the Old Testament prophetship, by Elijah the Tishbite, the 
prophet of fire, whose word burnt like a torch, and whose very 
name "Jehovah is my God," testified against the apostate and 
irresolute race (1 Kings 17: 1 — 2 Kings 2: 11). 

Elisha was appointed by the Divine command to succeed 
Elijah (2 Kings 2 : 15 — 13: 21). 

The many miracles which appear in the history of Elijah 
and his successor Elisha are peculiar, no miracles being ordin- 
arily attributed to the prophets of the Old Testament. Here, 
as well as at the Exodus from Egypt, it appears that the agency 
of miracles was chiefly employed when the point at issue was 
to prove the existence of the living God, as against the wor- 
shipers of the false gods. 

§ 174. Schools of the Prophets, and Characteristics of the Prophetism of 
the Period. Fall of Jehoram. The Rechabites. 

It is probable that the schools of the prophets were revived 
by Elijah, for the purpose of providing a kind of religious ful- 
crum for the people who were cut off from the lawful sanctuary 
and worship at Jerusalem, and of raising up men who would 
labor for the quickening of their spiritual life. Not less than 



150 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

three of these institutions are found within a tolerably limited 
area, and at the very headquarters of idolatry, viz., at Bethel ' (2 
Kings 2 : 3), at Jericho (2 Kings 2 : 5), and at Gilgal (2 Kings 
4 : 38). About one hundred sons of the prophets sat before 
Elishaat Gilgal, and their number at Jericho could hardly have 
been less. The name, sons of the prophets, which is not used of 
the association of prophets under Samuel, but first appears 1 
Kings 20 : 35, points to an educational relation. From these 
communities the prophets seem to have traversed the country, 
for the purpose of exercising their ministry among the people. 

Ordinarily there seems to have been no special ceremony 
for consecrating prophets to their office. The succession to the 
office was not connected with any legal ceremony, nor depend- 
ent on human appointment, but is said to have rested solely on 
the direct call and consecration of God (Amos 7 : 15 ; Isa. 6: 
8, 9 ; etc.). 

These schools of the prophets served the people of the 
northern kingdom as a substitute for the legitimate sanctuary. 
With regard to their maintenance, the prophets seem in gen- 
eral to have been dependent upon voluntary contributions (1 
Kings 14 : 3). 

It was from a school of the prophets that the overthrow of 
the dynasty of Omri proceeded. Jehu was anointed king over 
Israel by one of the sons of the prophets, and Elisha charged 
him with the execution of the curse pronounced by Elijah on 
the house of Ahab (1 Kings 21 : 21 — 29). Jezreel was immedi- 
ately surprised by Jehu, and Jehoram, his mother Jezebel, and 
the whole house of Ahab was slain (2 Kings 9). 

In this work assistance was afforded to Jehu by Jehonadab 
the son of Rechab (2 Kings 10: 15, 23), who is also known, 
from Jer. 35 : 6, as the founder of the Rechabites, a. kind of 
nomadic ascetics, belonging, according to 1 Chron. 2: 55, to 
the Kenites. According to the statement of Jeremiah (35 : 6 — 
11), the Rechabites were bound to sow no seed, to plant no 
vineyards, and to drink no wine. The now current notion that 
the Rechabites were connected with Nazaritism may be cor- 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 151 

rect, but there is no authority for regarding them as Nazarites 
properly speaking. 

2. From Jehu to the Overthrow of the Kingdom of the Ten Tribes (884 — 
721 B. C.) (i 175—177). 

§ 175. The Dynasty of Jehu. 

Jehu's dynasty maintained itself on the throne for more than 
a century, a longer period than that of any other. But Jehu's 
reformation stopped half way. He indeed extirpated the wor- 
ship of Baal, but the illegal worship at Dan and Bethel, and 
also the Ashera at Samaria, were left unmolested (2 Kings 13: 
6). The state of the kingdom under Jehu (884 — 856 B. c), and 
still more under his son and successor Jehoahaz (856 — 
841 B. c), was in a political aspect a very unfortunate one. 
But when the kingdom was reduced to the last extremity, the 
dying Elisha promised to the dejected Joash (841 — 824 b. a), 
the son and successor of Jehoahaz, victory over the Syrians (2 
Kings 13 : 14 — 19), and the prophet Jonah, the son of Amittai 
subsequently predicted the restoration of the ancient boundar- 
ies of the kingdom (2 Kings 14: 25). Joash was successful in 
his wars against Damascus and Judah : but the glory of the 
kingdom was still further enhanced under his valiant son Jero- 
boam II. (824 — 784 b. c). External success, however, effected 
no internal change, and the state was hastening toward those 
judgments which the prophets Amos and Hosea were raised 
up to proclaim. 

§ 176. From Zaehariah to the Carrying away of the Ten Tribes (772 — 
721 B. C). 

After the death of Jeroboam, dreadful disorders broke out 
in Samaria (Hos. 4). An interregnum in Samaria of at least 
twelve years must be admitted. Zaehariah (772 B. c), the 
son of Jeroboam fella victim to a conspiracy six months after 
his accession, and thus was fulfilled the doom prophesied 
against his house. Shallum (771 b. a), the murderer of 
Zaehariah, was himself slain, after a reign of one month, by 
Menahem (771 — 760 b. a), 2 Kings 15: 13, 14. The horrors 
of these days are depicted by Hosea (7 : 1 — 16). 



l52 THEOLOGICAL ENCYOLOf^DtA. 

A decided turn was now given to affairs ; for Menahem 
smoothed the way for Pul, king of Assyria, to enter the coun- 
try, and thus laid the foundation of Israel's dependence on 
Assyria. Menahem purchased Pul's assistance, in confirming 
him in the kingdom, by heavy sacrifices (2 Kings 15: 19, 20). 
This was the first stage of the threatened Judgment. 

In Samaria was henceforth developed that unhappy policy, 
which, while on the one hand courting the Assyrians, was on 
the other secretly combining with Egypt for the purpose of 
throwing off, by her assistance, the Assyrian yoke. In oppo- 
sition to this, the prophets made it their business to inculcate 
a higher policy, by a consistent assertion of the theocratic 
principle, which was simply this, that Israel should never 
court the protection of a worldly power, but seek assistance 
from God alone (Hos. 5: 13, 14; 7: 8 — 16; etc.). Such ex- 
hortations, however, found no audience ; and the prophets 
were despised and persecuted as fools (Hos. 9: 7). 

The coming ruin was hastened by Pekah, who, after slay- 
ing Pekahiah, the son of Menahem, ascended the throne in 
758 B. C. Towards the close of his reign, the Assyrian mon- 
arch Tiglathpileser took the provinces east of the Jordan and 
Galilee, and carried away the tribes inhabiting these regions 
into the interior of Asia, about 740 B. c. (2 Kings 15 : 29). 
This was the second stage of the Judgment. Hoshea, who 
obtained the throne by conspiring against and slaying Pekah, 
became tributary to the Assyrian king Shalmanezer, but 
sought, by concluding an alliance with So, king of Egypt, 
to release himself from this dependence. Shalmanezer imme- 
diately marched into the land of Israel, and Samaria was 
taken after a three years' siege, not by Shalmanezer, but, 
as is now settled by the cuneiform inscriptions, by his suc- 
cessor, Sargon. The people were led into captivity 721 b. c, 
and thus was the Judgment accomplished (2 Kings 17 : 7 — 23). 
The dwelling-places assigned to the exiles were situated in 
Media and the upper provinces of Assyria (2 Kings 17 : 6). 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 153 

§ 177. Origin of the Samaritans. 

In place of the Israelites who were carried into exile, colo- 
nies from central Asia were planted in the depopulated country 
by Sargon (2 Kings 17: 24). Esar-hadden, the son of Sen- 
nacherib, also sent colonies into the still sparsely peopled land 
(Ezra 4:2). These, to avert the judgments which befell them, 
mingled the worship of Jehovah, as the God of the land, with 
the heathen religions they had brought with them from their 
respective homes (2 Kings 17 : 25 — 41). Thus arose the so- 
called Samaritans or Cuthites, as they were named by the 
Jews, from Cuthah, the native country of a portion of them. 
Two views are held with respect to these Samaritans. 1) Some 
hold that they were not a purely heathen people, but a mixed 
race arising from the intermarriage of the new colonists with 
the remnant of the ten tribes which was left in the land. 2) 
The other and older view is, that the Samaritans proceeded 
from wholly heathen races, a view, in modern times, re-advo- 
cated especially by Hengstenberg. The Old Testament passa- 
ges (2 Kings 17: 24 — 41; Ezra 4: 2, 9, 10) favor the second 
view. Nevertheless, even under Josiah (639 — 608 B. a), 
remnants of Manasseh, Ephraim, and of the rest of Israel, are 
assumed as still dwelling in the northern regions (2 Chron. 
34: 9), and the men from Shechem, Shiloh, and Samaria, 
named in Jer. 41 : 5 as mourning for the destruction of Jeru- 
salem, were undoubtedly Israelites. Besides, the total deport- 
ation of the entire population of so important a district is 
hardly to be supposed possible. This much, however, is cer- 
tain, that the Israelitish element among the Samaritans, must 
by no means be computed as so considerable as is generally 
the case. 

IV. The Kingdom of Judah (§ 178 — 187). 

§ 178. Preliminary Remarks and Survey. 

The history of the kingdom of Judah has a character es- 
sentially different from that of the kingdom of Israel. Though 
much smaller, it was still superior to the kingdom of Israel in 



154 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

internal strength. This resulted partly from its possession of 
the genuine sanctuary with its legitimate worship, its influen- 
tial priesthood, and Levitical orders ; and partly from its royal 
house, which, had not been raised to the throne by revolution, 
but possessed the sanction of legitimacy and a settled succes- 
sion, and was especially consecrated by the memory of its 
illustrious ancestor David, and the Divine promises vouch- 
safed to his race. Moreover, among the nineteen monarchs 
(of course not counting Athaliah) who occupied the throne 
from Rehoboam till the fall of the state, there were at least 
some individuals distinguished for high administrative talents, 
in whom the ideal of the theocratic kingship was revived, such 
as Jehosaphat (915 — 893 B- a), Hezekiah (727 — 696 b. c.)> 
Josiah (639 — 608 B. c). Since the preservation of the theo- 
cratic ordinances did not devolve in Judah exclusively upon 
the prophets, their position was different from that which they 
occupied in the kingdom of the ten tribes. There is no sort 
of evidence that schools of the prophets, or associations such as 
existed in the kingdom of the ten tribes, were organized in 
Judah. In the historical notices of the kingdom of Judah we 
meet only with individual prophets, a succession of whom con- 
tinues, with but inconsiderable gaps, down to the captivity, and 
it was only around eminent prophets like Isaiah (760—690 b. 
C.) (Isa. 8 : 16), and afterwards Jeremiah (628 — 583 b. c), that 
small circles of disciples were gathered. 

1. From Rehoboam to Ahaz [976—741 B. C.) (%179, 180). 

% 179. Rehoboam to Jehosaphat. 

The history of Judah under Rehoboam (976 — 959 b. c.) and 
Abijah (959 — 956 b. c.) offers little that is worthy of notice. 
External misfortunes were added to the internal declension oc- 
casioned by the spread of idolatry. Then followed the jlrst re- 
formation under Asa (956—915 B. a). Jehosaphat (915 — 893 
b. a), the son of Asa, one of the best rulers of the house of 
David, was still more zealous for the establishment of the the- 
ocratic ordinances. To promote religious knowlege among the 
the people, a commission, consisting of five high officials, two 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 155 

priests, and nine Levites, was sent about the country with the 
book of the law to instruct the people (2 Chron. 17 : 7 — 9). 
Under Jehosaphat not only did the priesthood attain great in- 
fluence, but the powerful prophets Jehu (2 Chron. 19:2) and 
Eliezer (2 Chron. 20: 37) also exercised their office during his 
reign. Externally the reign of Jehosaphat was prosperous. 

§ 180. ■ Jehoram to Jotham. 

Jehoram (893 — 885 b. a), the son of Jehosaphat, one of the 
worst kings of Judah, was married to Athaliah, a daughter of 
Ahab and Jezebel. Their son, Ahaziah, after scarcely one 
year's reign, was slain along with the whole house of Ahab, on 
the occasion of a visit which he was paying to his royal relatives 
in Israel (2 Chron. 22: 6 — 9). Athaliah, the daughter of Jeze- 
bel, who was worthy of her mother, now ruled absolutely at 
Jerusalem (884 — 878 b. c). In an insurrection Athaliah was 
slain, and Joash (878 — 838 b. a), a young son of Ahaziah, who 
was saved from the fury of his grandmother Athaliah by being 
concealed in the temple during six years was raised to the 
throne. In the beginning of his reign the worship of Jehovah 
flourished, and it is to this period that the book of the prophet 
Joel must be assigned. In the latter part of the reign of Joash, 
however, idolatry, through the influence of the nobles, again 
got the upper hand, and after a very unsuccessful war against 
the Syrians, Joash fell a victim to a conspiracy. A similar fate 
was experienced by his son Amaziah (838 — 809 b. a), and 
Uzziah (809 — 757 b. c.) ascended the throne at a time of great 
disorder. The kingdom of Judah during his reign and that of 
his son Jotham (757 — 741 b. c.) attained a degree of power 
such as it had not possessed since the disruption. Still, not- 
withstanding the general adherence of Uzziah and Jotham to 
the theocratic ordinances (2 Kings 15: 3, 34), the moral and 
religious condition of the people was not satisfactory. The 
characteristics of the times are described in Isa. 2 : 5 — 8 ; 5 : 
18—23. 



156 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

2, From Ahaz to Josiah (741—693 B. C.) (§ 181, 182). 

§ 181. Ahaz and Hezekiah. 

During the reign of the weak and idolatrous Ahaz (741 — 
727 B. c.) Judah experienced a series of misfortunes. When 
the heart of Ahaz and the heart of his people were moved as 
the trees of the wood are moved by the wind (Isa. 7: 2), the 
help of the God of Israel was offered him in vain by Isaiah. 
During his reign the worship of idols was openly practised in 
Jerusalem itself (2 Kings 16: 3, 4; 2 Chron. 28: 2 — 4). 

Better things were to be expected of the pious and power- 
ful Hezekiah (727- -696 b. c), under whom Isaiah zealously 
labored, and who also humbly received the testimony given at 
Jerusalem by the prophet Micah (Jer. 26: 18, 19). But moral 
corruption was found everywhere, and instead of patiently sub- 
mitting to the Assyrian yoke as a just punishment, as Isaiah 
called upon them to do (Isa. 10: 24 — 27; 30: 15 — 18) the 
nobles in Jerusalem were continually plotting to revolt from 
Assyria and urged the king to ally himself with Egypt. This 
revolt took place soon after the accession of Sennacherib, who, 
on his march toward Egypt invaded and devastated Judah. 
Sennacherib at first appears to have been pacified by an enor- 
mous tribute (2 Kings 18: 13 — 16), but afterwards broke his 
engagement and marched against Jerusalem. Hezekiah in- 
deed used every means possible for the defence of the city (2 
Chron. 32: 3 — 6; Isa. 22: 9 — 11), but so desperate was the 
state of affairs, that Hezekiah knew of no other refuge than 
that of prayer. The deliverance took place, by the destruction 
of the Assyrian army, on the very night before Sennacherib ad- 
vanced to attack the city (Isa. 36: 1 — 37: 37; 2 Kings 18: 
13 — 19: 36). This event probably occurred in the neighbor- 
hood of Jerusalem, and may be supposed to have been effected 
by a pestilence. 

§ 182. Manasseh and Anion. 

Judah was fast ripening for judgement under the two kings 
Manasseh (696 — 641 b. c), and Amon (641 — 639 b. a), who 
systematically set to work to overthrow the worship of 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 157 

Jehovah, and to re-establish the undisputed supremacy of idol- 
atry. While no trace of resistance to the abomination of 
Manasseh is to be discovered on the part of the priesthood, 
there were at least prophets who raised their voices against 
them (2 Kings 21: 10), and were among the innocent blood 
with which Manasseh filled Jerusalem (2 Kings 21: 16; 24: 4). 
According to tradition, Isaiah was also among the victims of 
Manasseh. 

3. From Josiah to the Overthrow of the State (639—586 B. C.) (§ 183— 
187). 

§ 183. Josiah. 

This period opens with the last struggle of the theocratic 
principle against the idolatry and immorality of the people, and 
with the last temporary elevation of the kingdom under Josiah 
(639 — 608 b. a). In the eighteenth year of his reign (at the 
age of twenty-six), Hilkiah the high priest found the book of 
the law, which during the sixty years' public supremacy of 
heathenism had fallen into oblivion. The king, struck with fear 
when he heard the curses threatened for apostasy, took the 
most strenuous measure for the complete extirpation of idola- 
try, but this reformation effected only an external prevalence 
of the forms of the legitimate worship, and was unable to pro- 
duce in the degenerate nation a real purification of faith and 
morals. Upon Jeremiah especially, whose call was nearly con- 
temporary with the appearance ot Zephaniah and the com- 
mencement of Josiah's reforms, devolved at this period the 
advocacy of the cause of God. 

§ 184. Profane History at this Period. Death of Josiah. Jehoahaz. 
Judah was involved in the great battles which arose in con- 
nection with the fall of Nineveh. Necho, king of Egypt, ap- 
peared with an army in Palestine, on his way to Assyria (2 
Chron. 35: 21), and Josiah attempted to obstruct his march. 
A battle was fought between them at Megiddo, on the plain of 
Jezreel, in which the Jewish army was defeated, and Josiah, 
mortally wounded, died soon after at Jerusalem (2 Kings 23 : 
29; 2 Chron. 35: 20 — 25). Jehoahaz was, after a reign of three 



158 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

months, summoned to the Egyptian camp at Riblah, on the 
northern boundary of Palestine, and there imprisoned, while 
Eliakim was set up in his stead as an Egyptian vassal king, by 
the name of /ekoiakim, Jehoahaz was afterwards removed to 
Egypt, where he died (2 Chron. 36: 1 — 4; 2 Kings 23 : 31—35; 
Jer. 22: 10 — 12). 

§ 185. Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin. 

In Jehoiakim (608 — 597 b. c.) Judah received a king who 
surpassed the worst of his ancestors in badness. Idolatry was 
again openly practised, and all the reforms of Josiah were ob- 
literated. A grievous period of affliction and persecution now 
set in for Jeremiah. Disgrace and persecution were heaped 
upon the prophet, who undauntedly and incessantly contended 
against the prevailing idolatry and wickedness, and against the 
degenerate priests and false prophets who now appeared in 
great numbers, and sought by their deceptions to invalidate the 
testimony of the true prophet. After the destruction of 
Nineveh in 606 b. c, in which the prophecy of Nahum, proba- 
bly a younger contemporary of Isaiah, was fulfilled, matters 
took a new turn in Hither Asia. After the battle of Carchem- 
ish (605 b. a), a fortress situated on the Euphrates, all Hither 
Asia fell into the hands of Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings 24: 7). 
Jeremiah now announced, in the spirit of prophecy, the pur- 
pose for which the Chaldean power was appointed by God, and 
its predetermined duration of seventy years (Jer. 25 : 11, 12). 
When Nebuchadnezzar took posession of Jerusalem, Jehoiakim 
was put in chains to be taken to Babylon (2 Chron. 36 : 6), but 
was afterward left behind as the vassal of the Chaldean empire. 
Three years after, Jehoiakim rebelled (2 Kings 24 : 1), but 
died during the war, 599 or 598 B. c. His son Jehoiachin 
(Coniah) then succeeded, but was dethroned after a reign of 
three months by Nebuchadnezzar, who now came and carried 
him away, together with the nobles, men of war, and priests, to 
Babylon. This was the second deportation, and by it the bet- 
ter portion of the people was taken into captivity. Among 
those carried to Babylon was Ezekiel, who from the fifth year 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 159 

of his captivity onward filled the office of prophet to the exiles 
at Chebar. 

8 186. Zedekiah. Fall of the State and of Jerusalem 
Zedekiah (598 — 588 B. a), the last king of Judah, was a 
weak prince, who lived in shameful dependence upon the low 
upstarts who had now seized upon power. Although he had 
sworn fealty to Nebuchadnezzar (2 Chron. 36: 13), he never- 
theless, in the ninth year of his reign, openly broke his oath, 
and concluded an alliance with the Egyptian king. In vain had 
Jeremiah warned him, by repeatedly declaring the Divine ap 
pointment of Nebuchadnezzar to be the instrument of judgment 
to Judah and the surrounding nations. When Nebuchadnezzar 
appeared before Jerusalem, Jeremiah counselled the surrender 
of the city. But the nobles cast Jeremiah into prison, who, 
however, was secretly released by the king, and kept in the 
court of the prison (Jer. 37 : 11 — 21). A second time he was 
cast into a dungeon by the princes that he might there perish 
with hunger, but was again delivered by the king ( Jer. 38 : 

6-13). 

After a siege of eighteen months, a breach was made in the 
fortifications, and Zedekiah was captured, and after his sons 
had been executed before his eyes, was deprived of his sight 
and taken in chains to Babylon (Jer. 39: 1 — 7 ; 2 Kings 25: 
1 — 7). The destruction of Jerusalem and the third deportation 
of the people was effected by the Chaldean general Nebuzaradan 
(2 Kings 25: 8 — 11; Jer. 39: 8 — 14), 588 B.C. With ferocious 
exultation, the neighboring states, and especially the Edomites 
hastened to the spot, to feast their eyes upon the spectacle of 
the fall of this detested people (Ps. 137: 7; Ezek, 35 : 15; 
36: 5). 

§ 187. Gedeliah and the Remnant of the People. 

A remnant of the people, among whom was Jeremiah, was 
left in the land (Jer. 39: 11 — 14; 40: 1 — 6); and fields and 
vineyards were assigned to them by Nebuzaradan ( Jer. 39 : 
10.). Nebuchadnezzar placed over them as his viceroy 



160 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Gedaliah a son of the prince Ahikam, who had a high official 
position under Josiah (2 Kings 22: 12). The viceroyship of 
Gedaliah, however, lasted only two months, for he was treach- 
erously slain at a banquet (2 Kings 25 : 23 — 26). The Jews 
who were still remaining, fearing the vengeance of Nebuchad- 
nezzar, determined in spite of the warnings of Jeremiah to emi- 
grate to Egypt, whither the prophet also followed them. Jere- 
miah was here also constrained to exercise his office of reprover, 
and probably terminated his storm tossed life in this country, 
according to patristic tradition, being stoned by his fellow- 
countrymen. To this period belong Jer. 40 — 44. 

V. History of the Jewish Nation from the Babylonian 
Captivity to the Cessation of Prophecy (586 — 400 b. c.) (§ 188 

—193. 

§ 188. Condition of the People and Agency of the Prophets during the 
Captivity. 

The condition of the Jews in captivity does not seem, so far 
as we can ascertain from the writings of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, 
to have been one of special oppression (Jer. 29 : 4 — 7). The 
same word of prophecy, whose truth was proved by the judg- 
ment which had fallen upon them, exhorted them to wait with 
patience for the hour when the deliverance of Israel should ap- 
pear in the doom of Babylon. As the kingship and priesthood 
were annulled, the leadership of the people devolved exclu- 
sively on the prophets. Perhaps it was from the custom which 
now arose among the Israelites, of gathering around a prophet 
to hear the word of God, that Synagogues originated. But the 
prophets of God had, during the captivity, a mission to fulfil to 
the heathen also. The conflict waged by Jehovah against the 
gods of the land, when he delivered his people out of Egypt, 
was renewed with increased intensity at Babylon. To carry 
on this struggle was the special vocation of Daniel, who was 
educated at the Babylonian court, in all the wisdom of the 
Chaldees, and raised to the highest honors. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 161 

§ 189. Deliverance and Return of the Jews from Babylon. Commence- 
ment of the Re-building of the Temyle. 

After Cyriis had ascended the Medo-Babylonian throne, 
he gave the Jews permission, in the first year of his reign, to 
return to Palestine and to rebuild their destroyed temple at 
Jerusalem (2 Chron, 36: 22, 23; Ezra 1 : 1 — 11). The act of 
Cyrus can only be explained by the religious interest which he 
took in the Jews, and is not to be explained on other grounds. 
The return from Babylon took place under the conduct of 
Zerubbabel, a hereditary prince of the tribe of Judah, who was 
made the Persian viceroy. With him was associated, as spirit- 
ual ruler of the people, the high priest Joshua. Under the 
direction of these men, 42,360 Israelites (Ezra 2: 64; Neh. 7 : 
66) with more than 7,000 bondmen and bondwomen returned 
to Palestine. These belonged for the most part to the tribe of 
Judah, but individuals belonging to other tribes may also have 
been found among the band. The returned Jews at first as- 
sembled for the worship of God at an altar set up for the pur- 
pose, but preparations were immediately made for there build- 
ing of the temple (Ezra 2 : 68, 69 ; 3 : 7 — 9). It was a time of 
hearty enthusiasm, which showed itself more especially at the 
laying of the foundations of the temple in the second month of 
the following year (Ezra 3 : 3 — 10). The newly settled nation 
was, however, to experience grievous trials. The Samaritans, 
whose desire to obtain a share in the new temple was rejected, 
revenged themselves by intriguing at the Persian court to hin- 
der the building, which now ceased till the second year of Dar- 
ius Hystaspis ( Ezra 4 : 1 — 5). 

§ 190. The Period from Cyrus to Darius Hystaspis. 
Of this interval we have no account, for the section Ezra 4 : 
6 — 23 refers to the period of Xerxes and Artaxerxes. In the 
the whole period from Cyrus to Darius Hystaspis, hindrances 
to the building of the temple are only mentioned, and Ezra 4: 
5 should be immediately followed by ver. 24. In the sixth 
month of the second year of Darius (520 B. c), the prophet 
Haggai was raised up to encourage the viceroy Zerubbabel by 



162 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

prophecy, and revive the hopes of the people in their promised 
redemption. When, however, the meanness of the building 
(Hag. 2:3; Zech. 4 : 10) produced fresh despondency, the 
people were comforted by Haggai and by Zechariah. As, in 
spite of all difficulties, the building of the temple would now be 
successfully accomplished (Zech. 4 : 7 — 9), so also was redemp- 
tion assured to them. Soon that great shaking of the nations 
would take place, in which the heathen powers would wear each 
other out (Hag. 2: 6, 21; Zech. 2 : 1 — 4). Then would the 
kingdom of God, into which the Gentiles should be incorpor- 
ated, and to which they should dedicate all their treasures, tri- 
umph (Hag. 2: 7 — 9; Zech. 8: 20 — 23). When Darius heard 
of the rebuilding of the temple he not only commanded that no 
hindrance should be laid in the way, but even granted state as- 
sistance both for the rebuilding and for the regular maintenance 
of the sacrifices. The building consequently proceeded and 
the temple was finished and dedicated in the sixth year of 
Darius, 516 b. c. (Ezra 5 and 6). 

§ 191. The Jews under Xerxes. Beginning of Ezra's Administration. 
We have no information concerning the condition of the 
people in Palestine during the next fifty- eight years, except the 
short paragraph in Ezra 4: 6, which refers to the time of 
Xerxes. On the other hand the occurrence in Persia to which 
the book of Esther refers, belongs to this period, to the reign 
of Xerxes. 

In the time of Artaxerxes Longimanus, the thread of the his- 
tory of the Jewish settlement in the Holy Land is again taken 
up, first by the book of Ezra (Chap. 7), in the seventh year of 
this monarch (Ezra 7 : 7), 458 b. c. We find the colony in 
Palestine at this time in a state of great depression. Matters 
took a turn for the better, when Ezra brought a second band 
of Israelites into Judah. He began his work of reformation by 
the dismissal of all the heathen wives. Of Ezra's subsequent 
administration during the next twelve years, nothing is narrated. 
What happened during the period may be inferred from the 
record in Ezra 4 : 7 — 23. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 163 

§ 192. Ezra and Nehemiah. The Close of Prophecy. 
Nehemiah, who was sent to Jerusalem by Artaxerxes in the 
20th year of that monarch's reign (445 b. c.)> with the authority 
of governor, effected the restoration of the walls and gates of 
Jerusalem, and set heartily to work at the removal of internal 
sores. Ezra also now began to act in his capacity of a teacher 
of the law. To Ezra must be attributed not a re- foundation of 
the theocracy, but only a restoration of the ordinances of the 
law. He was the founder of Judaism proper; and in this very 
fact lies his great importance in the history also of the kingdom 
of God. 

After a twelve years' sojourn in Palestine, Nehemiah re- 
turned to Persia (433 b. c). New abuses sprang up during 
his absence, and he returned for a second time, probably be- 
fore the death of Artaxerxes (424 B. c). During the time of his 
second governorship, Malachi, the last of the canonical prophets 
of the Old Testament, exercised his ministry. 

§ 193. The Beginning of Sopherism. Public Worship at the Close of this 
Period. 

In place of the prophets the Scribes or Sopherim now ap- 
pear, of whom Ezra was the prototype and representative 
(Ezra 7 : 6, 10). Tradition assigns to him a college of scribes, 
under the name of the great Synagogue, as sharers in his work 
of organization, but the historical books of the Old Testament 
know of no such an authority. From this time on, however, 
the scribes, who diligently applied themselves to the study and 
exposition of the law, formed a separate class. The priests, as 
such, were now restricted to the performance of religious rites 
and the transactions connected therewith. By the side of those 
services of the temple which were connected with the priest- 
hood, was more and more developed the service of the syna- 
gogue, with the reading and exposition of the law, — a service 
whose administration devolved upon the scribes. This now 
formed the actual centre of the religious life of Judaism. 



164 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

Second Section. The Theology of Prophetism f§ 194 — 
234)- 

§ 195. Summary. 

The theology of Mosaism is further developed by prophecy, 
especially in the following respects: 

1 . With regard to the doctrine of God and of his relation 
to the world, with which is connected a further expansion of 
angelology. 

2. The intrinsically moral nature of the law is further 
developed by prophecy; in other words, the doctrine of sin and 
of righteousness is further unfolded. 

3. The communion of man with God culminates in Pro- 
phecy. 

4. The progress of the kingdom of God forms the essential 
matter of prophecy. 

I. The Doctrine of the Lord of Hosts and of Angels 
(§ 195—200). 

§ 195. Form and Occurrence of the Name of God. Partial Views con- 
cerning its Original Meaning. 

Jehovah Sabaoth (Hebrew TsebhaotK). The full expression 
of this name of God is Jehovah, God of Sabaoth. Sabaoth 
never appears alone as a name of God in the Hebrew text of 
the Old Testament. Nor does Jehovah Sabaoth occur as the 
Divine name in the Pentateuch, Joshua, or Judges. It is first 
mentioned in the narrative of the times of Eli; and it is by this 
name that Hannah invokes God (1 Sam. 1: 11). The name 
seems to have been especially in use in the days of Samuel and 
David. It sometimes appears in the Psalms, but only in the 
first three books. It the Books of the Kings it seldom occurs, 
and only in the mouths of the prophets Elijah and Elisha, In 
the prophetical books it is most frequently found in Amos, 
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. 

The name, according to its original meaning, is said by 
many to designate Jehovah as the God of battles of His people, 
who are called "the armies" or "hosts" of the Lord (Ex. 7:4; 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 165 

12: 41). But though it is true, that there is in this name a 
reference to the fact that God manifests Himself in irresistible 
power against the enemies of His people, yet if this were its 
original meaning, it is strange that the name did not make its 
appearance in those ancient times which were expressly the 
times of the great theocratic conflicts ("the wars of Jehovah" 
Num. 21: 14); and again that it did not originate, but was al- 
ready in use, in the warlike age of David. A higher notion is 
involved in the expression, namely this, that the fact that the 
God of the armies of Israel is also the Lord of Hosts makes 
Him so terrible a God. 

A second view appeals to Gen. 2: 1, (where it understands 
the expression Tsebhaoth as applying to the creatures in gen- 
eral, who together compose the great army of the Lord) as 
implying that God is the God of the world. So that according 
to this view it is the majesty of God in general, as displayed in 
his dominion over the whole creation, which this name ex- 
presses. 

The true explanation of the name, however, must be derived 
from the phrase host of heaven. 

§ 196. The Host of Heaven 1. The Heavenly Bodies. 

The host of heaven in the Old Testament includes the 
heavenly bodies and the celestial spirits. The Old Testament 
distinctly maintains not only the creaturehood of the heavenly 
host (Ps. 33: 6), but also the distinction of the two above- 
named classes. It is only by a poetical personification that 
the stars are spoken of in the song of Deborah (Judg. 5 : 20) 
as the warriors of the Lord, who, leaving their courses, descend 
to fight for Israel against Sisera, and that the morning stars 
are said in Job 38 : 7 to have joined with the angels in celebrat- 
ing the morning of creation. The heavenly bodies are de- 
clared to be merely light- bearers, created by God, and as such 
subserving earthly purposes (Ps. 104: 19 — 23). They manifest, 
indeed, by their splendor and their course, the greatness and 
wisdom of the Creator (Ps. 8 : 3; 19, 1 — 6; Job 9: 9; 38: 31 — 
33, etc.), but their brilliancy admits of no comparison with the 



166 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Divine glory ( Job 25 : 5). Thus they are the hosts of God 
whom his almighty will commands (Isa. 40 : 26 ; 45 : 12); they 
serve to proclaim and to glorify his judgments (Joel 3: 15; 
Isa. 13: 10; Hab. 3: 11). Their creaturehood is shown by the 
fact that they as well as the terrestrial creation are transitory 
(Isa. 34: 4; 51: 6; Ps. 102: 26,27). 

§ 197. 2. The Host of the Heavenly Spirits. 

The Old Testament speaks of the host of heavenly spirits, 
the armies of the sons of God, the angels, in &three fold aspect: 

1. They form the higher church, which, standing at the 
head of the choir of the universe, adores God in the heavenly 
sanctuary (Ps. 148 : 2). From this central point of the Divine 
glory, proceed all God's manifestations oi grace and judgment 
to the world (Mic. 1 : 2, 3; Hab. 2 : 20; etc.). In Ps. 89: 5 — 7 
the sons of God (angels) are called the congregation of the 
saints, who are constantly praising the wonders of Divine grace. 
Their near relation to God is shown ver. 7, where they are 
designated "the council of the holy ones." The meaning of 
this passage is, that the heavenly hosts, as the appointed instru- 
ments of executing God's judgments, are also to be the wit- 
nesses of His counsels. 

2. They are the messengers of God, the instrument 
of executing His will in grace and in judgment for the 
deliverance of His people and the subjugation of His 
enemies (Ps. 103: 20,21; 148: 2). This implies that God's 
government is carried on by the means of personal and 
living powers. For the purposes of His kingdom and for the 
special service of His people, God has chosen the heavenly 
spirits, who are the companions of man (Ps. 91 : 11; 34: 7). 
In opposition to Satan, whose occupation it is to ruin men (Job 
1), God has thousands of angels whose business it is to be ac- 
tive in the deliverance of human souls. 

3. The hosts of heavenly spirits are also appointed to be 
His attendant witnesses, and partially His instruments when 
He appears in His royal and judicial glory, (Deut. 33: 2). In 
Ps. 68 : 17 God is represented as seated upon His throne on 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 167 

Zion, surrounded by the chariots or cavalry of the angelic hosts. 
Lastly, the heavenly host form Jehovah's retinue at the final 
revelation of His judgment. The angels are "the mighty ones" 
whom God, according to Joel 3: 11, leads down into the valley 
of Jehosaphat ; they are "the holy ones" with whom, according 
to Zech. 14: 5, He appears upon the Mount of Olives in the de- 
cisive hour of the last conflict of the covenant people. Com- 
pare the description of the procession of the heavenly armies in 
Rev. 19: 14. 

§ 198. Result with Respect to the Name Jehovah Sabaoth. 
In summing up what has been said, we find that the sig- 
nificance of the doctrine of Jehovah Sabaoth consists in the 
fact that it teaches us to recognize not only the supermundane 
power and glory of the living God, but also makes Him known 
to us as interposing, according to His free and sovereign will, 
in the affairs of the world, and therefore not bound to elements 
or forces of nature which obey Him ; but as having, on the 
contrary, not only these but also the spiritual powers of the 
heavenly world at His disposal for the execution of His will on 
earth. He is the omnipotetit ruler of the Universe. 

§ 199. Angels of Higher Order and Speeial Office. 
The later prophetical books speak of angels of higher or- 
der and special calling among the heavenly host. The cheru- 
^'w are not among these (see § 119). Some have also re- 
garded the seraphim as merely symbolical beings, but in Isa. 6, 
the only passage in which they occur, ver. 6, rather suggests 
the ministry of angels; though seraphim here cannot be said 
entirely to correspond with the interpreting angel in Zechariah 
and Daniel. The symbolism of their appearance is very sim- 
ple. With two wings they cover their faces, — to indicate that 
even the most exalted spirits cannot bear the full vision of the 
Divine glory; with two they cover their feet, — to symbolize 
their reverence ; with two they fly, — to express the swiftness 
with which they execute the Divine commands. In other re- 
spect they are evidently represented in human form. The 



168 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

meaning of the word "seraph" is extremely doubtful. It is 
perhaps best to connect it with the Arabic root sharapha {to be 
noble). According to this derivation, the seraphim would be 
thus designated as being the most exalted among celestial spir- 
its. 

The seven angels mentioned in Ezek. 9 as sent forth to exe- 
cute the Divine sentence of extermination upon idolatrous 
Jerusalem, next come under consideration. The number seven 
is here, as elsewhere in the Old Testament, the sign that a 
Divine operation is being completed, — in this passage the 
Divine judgment now advancing to its close. One of these 
angels is distinguished by a high priestly robe of linen, and 
this angel of special dignity, no doubt, corresponds to the 
horseman who, in the vision of Zech. 1 : 8, stands among the 
myrtle trees, and is evidently chief over those who run to and 
fro through the earth. To him they bring their report ; and he, 
upon receiving it, intecedes with the Lord of Hosts for Jerusa- 
lem. He seems also to be identical with the angel of the Lord 
in Zech. 3, before whom Satan stands to accuse Joshua. 

We come now to the angels which appear in Daniel under 
the names Gabriel and Michael. 

Gabriel (z. e. man of God) is said to be the angel who ex- 
plains the visions to Daniel (Dan. 8: 16; 9: 12), thus answer- 
ing to the interpreting angel of Zechariah. 

It is, however, the Michael of the book of Daniel who ap- 
parently corresponds to the angel of the Lord in Zechariah, the 
horseman among the myrtle trees, who advocates the cause of 
the covenant people. 

But another appearance in the book of Daniel now claims 
our attention. According to Dan. 10, a man, called neither 
angel nor prince, appears to Daniel on the banks of the Tigris. 
It is the same person who at Ulai (Dan. 8 : 15 — 17), commands 
Gabriel to interpret to Daniel the vision he had received, — the 
same who, in Dan. 12: 7, guarantees by a solemn oath the ful- 
fillment of the Divine counsel. It is obvious that this appear- 
ance must be identified with him who (Dan. 7 : 13; 10: 18) 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 169 

comes as a son of man in the clouds of heaven to receive do- 
minion over all nations, i. e. the Messiah (compare the descrip- 
tion of the glorified Christ in Rev. i : 13 — 15 with Dan. 10: 
5,6). 

We find then already in the Old Testament, the doctrine 
further developed in the New, that the dispensations and judg- 
ments of God upon earth are closely connected with corres- 
ponding events in the higher world of spirits. 
§ 200. The Doetrine of Satan. 

Among the sons of God (angels) who appear before Jeho- 
vah, we meet in certain pass ages of the Old Testament ( Job, 
Chronicles, Zechariah), with an angel called Satan, of crafty 
and hostle disposition toward the covenant people and all who 
fear God, seeking to deprive them of the favor of God, but 
only suffered to act as His instrument. The word Satan means 
an enemy, an adversary. 

If we compare the two parallel passages 2 Sam. 24 : 1 and 
1 Chron. 21 : 1, we learn that what is by the older record (2 
Sam. 24 : 1) directly referred to Divine agency, is by the later 
account attributed to a hostile spirit. We here meet again with 
the same fact which we encountered in the doctrine of the an- 
gels, viz., that the later record brings into greater prominence 
those powers which are instruments of the Divine Providence. 
Other passages also point to such powers appointed by God to 
be instruments of the Divine wrath (1 Sam. 16: 14 — 23; Isa. 
19: 14; Ps. 75: 8). The transition hence to the doctrine of 
Satan is made by the passage 1 Kings 22 : 19 — 23. Satan 
though absolutely dependent on the Divine will with regard to 
what he effects, acts from a disposition hostile to man. This is 
hinted (1 Chron. 21 : 1) in the standing up of Satan against 
Israel, and still more prominently brought forward in the pro- 
logue to Job. It is true that in Job Satan appears in the midst 
of the sons of God (angels); but he comes from a wandering 
excursion over the earth, which he has evidently undertaken 
from hostility to men ; he hopes, too, that Job's piety will not 
endure temptation, and that he will thus cease to be an object 



170 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

of the Divine complacency.. That he may bring calamity upon 
Job, the Lord allows Satan the free disposal not only of the 
elements, — the tempest, and the fire of heaven,— but also of 
human beings (the nomadic hordes), and at length he is per- 
mitted to smite Job with a most terrible disease. But he is 
obliged to obtain from God the power of effecting all this; 
and the limit to the injury he is allowed to inflict is set by the 
will of God (Job 2 : 6). 

Of special significance, however, is the position of Satan with 
respect to the covenant people. This is shown with particular 
clearness in the vision of Zech. 3 : 1 — 10, while it is also briefly 
alluded to in 1 Chron. 21 : 1. In the vision of Zechariah, 
Joshua, the high priest is the representative of the people. He 
is accused before the Lord, not on account of his own sins as 
an individual, but in his capacity of high priest. His priestly 
garments are defiled. Satan affirms that for this sinful people 
there is no valid mediation before God. But the Lord causes 
the high priest to be clothed in clean garments, thus acknowl- 
edging the validity of the high-priestly mediation, though 
with an intimation (Zech. 3: 8) that the perfect atonement for 
the people is to be effected only by the Messiah. Thus the 
work of Satan is to question the forgiveness, the justification 
of the church, in which sense he is called "the accuser of our 
brethren" (Rev. 12: 10). With respect also to his agency 
among men, Satan, who desires to destroy the souls of men 
(Job 1), forms a contrast to the "interpreting angel" (Job 33: 
23), whose occupation it is to excite men to repentance and 
confession of sin, that their souls might be rescued from de- 
struction. 

The Satan of the Old Testament is not as yet revealed as 
the "prince of the world" ( John 16 : 11) as in the New Testa- 
ment, which discloses "the deep things of Satan" (Rev. 2: 24) 
only along with the completion of revelation. 

Of other evil angels nothing is distinctly taught in the Old 
Testament. By Azazel (Lev. 16) we must probably under- 
stand an evil spiritual power whom we may, with Hengstenberg, 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 171 

connect with the Satan of the later books (see § 140). It is 
true that "the destroyers" of Job 33: 22, who are contrasted 
with the "interpreting angels" of v. 23, must probably be re- 
ferred to a?igels, but it is not so much the nature of these an- 
gels, as the Divine commission, which makes them destroyers. 

II. Man's Religious and Moral Relation to God (§201 — 
204). 

§ 201. 1. Distinction between the Ceremonial and the Moral Law. 

The ceremonial and moral precepts are in the Mosaic law 
co-ordinate. The result of the tuition of the law which ad- 
vances from the outer to the inner, is that prophecy carries out 
the distinction between the ceremonial and the moral law, and 
emphatically declares that the performance of the external ordi- 
nances of the law, and especially the offering of sacrifice, 
were, as merely outward acts, worthless; that the will of 
God aimed at the sanctification of the heart and the surrender 
of the will to God; and that the observance of the cere- 
monial law had no value except as the expression of a godly 
disposition. 

§ 202. 2. The Ruinous Nature of Sin. The Need of a new Dispensa- 
tion of Grace. 

In proportion as a consciousness of the inwardness of the 
law's requirements is arrived at, will the conviction of sin be- 
come profound. Prophecy, by bringing into greater promi- 
nence the opposition in which the people stand to the electing 
and sanctifying purpose of their God, carries on the office of 
the law, and advances to the perception that the sanctification 
of the people at which the law aims, is unattainable during the 
present legal dispensation, and must, on the contrary, be 
effected by a new dispensation of grace. 

The tuition of the law, advances but gradually. We can- 
not expect at once to find in the Old Testament such a knowl- 
edge of sin, as is expressed in Rom. 7. But David already ex- 
pressed the acknowledgement that a Divine impartation of 
heart, was needed if the inward state was to be conformed to 
the Divine will (Ps. 51 : 10 — 12; 143: 10). 



172 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

To render evident that relation of electing and sanctifying 
love into which God has entered with his people, the prophets 
employ the figure of fatherhood and sons hip (see § 82. 1.). 
But the bridal and conjugal relation is far more frequently 
used by them, as the symbol of the communion into which God 
has entered with His people, (Hosea, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel). 
The nation now appears as a harlot, an adulteress. Sin is no 
longer mere disobedience to the commands of God, but is 
viewed as being in its inward and essential nature a breach of 
faith, as base ingratitude toward Him who has first loved. 
All boasting of human righteousness vanishes, and an over- 
whelming feeling of guilt is expressed in many prophetic dis- 
courses. 

It is, first of all, a common guilt resting upon the nation, 
making the nation as such, the object of Divine wrath. From 
this general sinfulness, even the more religious part of the 
nation, the servants of God, are not so exempt as to be con- 
trasted as absolutely righteous. The conviction thus forces it- 
self on the mind that a new dispensation of grace is needed; 
in other words, that God must of His own free grace blot out 
transgression and effect by a new communication of life that 
conformity to His will which the law demands. The chief pas- 
sages in which this is expressed are found in Jeremiah (24: 7 ; 
31 : 31—34) and Ezekiel (36: 25—29; 37 : 23—27). 

The fundamental assumption in this new dispensation is, 
as the passage from Jeremiah expresses at its close, the aboli- 
tion of the old condemnation by Divine mercy; that God, as the 
prophet Micah says (7 : 19) would of His mercy tread the 
iniquites of His people under foot, and cast all their sins into 
the depths of the sea. 

It is through the pardon of sin that occasion is afforded for 
the agency of those purifying and sanctifying forces which 
God puts forth (Ezek. 36 : 25 — 27). 

3. Justification by Faith (§ 203, 204). 

§ 203. The Old Testament Form of Faiih. 

Meanwhile the just walked in faith and had life therein. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 173 

The leading of Israel, from the time of its deliverance out of 
Egypt, rests entirely on faith (Deut. i: 32; 9: 23). 

What then is this faith? Negatively, it is a ceasing from 
all natural confidence in one's own strength and power, a re- 
nunciation of all trust in human support and assistance. Posi- 
tively, it is a fastening of the heart upon the Divine word of 
promise, a leaning upon the power and faithfulness of God 
(Ps. 112: 7, 8). On its negative side, whereby faith renounces 
self-chosen human ways, it is a resting in, a quiet waiting for 
God (Isa. 28 : 16; 30: 15; Ps. 62: 6). On its positive side, 
it is a sanctifying of the Lord (Isa. 8 : 13), a giving of glory 
to His sole sovereignty (Jer. 13 : 16; Hab. 2 : 4). 

In its expectation of the fulfilment of the Divine promise, the 
faith of the Old Testament turns to the future. It includes 
patience and hope (Isa. 25 : 9; Ps. 42 : 5). It is according to 
this specially Old Testament form that faith is illustrated by 
Old Testament examples in Heb. 11. But the Old Testament 
also exhibits faith as including negatively that renunciation of 
one's own claims and merits before God which arises from a 
conviction of sin, and positively, that surrender to the sin-an- 
nulling God and His atoning grace which are essential to the 
saving faith of the new covenant. In Ps. 130: 3 — 5 faith appears 
as a waiting upon the word which proclaims forgiveness of 
sins; but here, too, its eye is directed to the future. 

§ 204. The Old Testament Experience of Salvation. 
Was there already in Old Testame?it times the experience 
of justification and adoption in the New Testament sense of these 
terms? The Old Testament certainly teaches that Divine for- 
giveness is imparted to the sinner who turns in penitence and 
faith to God ; and that this is not a mere ignoring of sin (Ps. 
130: 4). To this subject belongs the whole of Ps. 32. 

This experience of Salvation, however, still remains but 
relative, and decidedly differs from that of the New Testament. 
1) It indeed affords peace of mind concerning individual sins, 
but it does not establish any permanent state of reconciliation. 
No such atoning grace and justification were imparted to the 



174 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA, 

the believer under the Old Testament as to enable him to say 
with the apostle: "The old things are passed away; behold, 
they are become new" (2 Cor. 5 : 17): He was pacified con- 
cerning the past, but only to begin again seeking to be hence- 
forth just through the works of the law. 2) Under the Old 
Testament conversion was indeed reached as a moral change, 
but not regeneration as a new creation. 3) The Divine 
Spirit did not make in the Old Testament saints a new founda- 
tion of life, — did not as yet work outwaid from within, as the 
transforming principle of the whole man. 

The highest communion between God and man, established 
by prophecy, does not attain to the eminence of that filial state 
inaugurated by the New Testament; for which reason Christ 
declares the greatest of the prophets to be less than the least in 
His kingdom (Matt. 11 : 11). 

III. Of Prophecy (§ 205 — 216). 

1. The Prophetic Consciousness (§ 205—212). 

§ 205. Negative Propositions. 

That which made the the prophet a prophet was not his 
natural gifts nor his own intention, and that which he pro- 
claimed as the prophetic word was not the mere result of in- 
struction received nor the product of his own reflection. 

§ 206. Positive Propositions. 

The prophet, as such, knows himself to be the organ of 
Divine revelation, in virtue both of a Divine vocation, capable 
of being known by him as such, and which came to him with 
irresistible power, and also of his endowment with the enlight- 
ening, sanctifying, and strengthening spirit of God. Accord- 
ingly, a prophet knows the objective reality, as the Word of God, 
of that word which he proclaims. 

1. The overwhelming constraint of the Divine call is de- 
scribed by Amos in the discourse in which he vindicates his 
prophetic work (Amos 3: 8). Isaiah (chap. 6) and Ezekiel 
(chap. 1) refer their call to visions, in which the glory of the 
Lord was manifested to them. But the book of Jeremiah 
furnishes the most abundant proofs of the certainty the prophets 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 175 

felt concerning their Divine vocation (Jer. 20: 7, 8; 17: 16). 
It was in virtue of the assurance that the call he had received 
was from God, that he condemned the pretensions of false 
prophets (chap. 23 and 28; see also 29: 24 — 32). 

2. The medium of the revelation, is, however, more par- 
ticularly said to be the Spirit of God, through whom it is that 
the Lord sends His word by means of the prophets ( Zech. 7: 1 2). 
This spirit proves itself to be Divine, 1) by disclosing to the 
prophets such knowledge as could come from God alone. To 
lay all possible stress upon the objectivity of this word, its 
communication is designated as a giving (Ezek. 2 : 8 ; 3 : 3), 
a putting into the mouth of the prophet (Deut. 18 : 18 ; Jer. 
1: 9; etc.). 2) But still more does the Spirit show itself to be 
of God to the true prophet upon whom it comes, and whom it 
fits lor his office, by its sanctifying and stre?igthening agency 
(Micah 3: 8). 

3. It is in virtue of such spiritual experience that the 
prophet knows that the word put into his mouth will also prove 
itself to bear within it the power of the living God ( Jer. 23: 
28, 29; Isa. 55: 11). Hence the prophet, as the announcer of 
this word, is also the performer of Divine acts (Jer. 1 : 10). 

§ 207. Psychological Definition of the Prophetic State in Ancient Times. 

How then is the prophetic state to be psychologically and 
more precisely defined ? On this subject various opinions were 
held in ancient times. 

At the time that the Septuagint was translated, the Greek 
word mantis designated the ecstatic utterer of an oracle, and 
prophetes the sober-minded interpreter of the oracle of the 
former. When, then, the Old Testament Nabhi is designated 
in the LXX by the name of prophetes (prophet), he may be 
said to be chiefly characterized not as a predicter (a meaning 
belonging indeed also to prophetes), but as one who declares 
what the Divine Spirit has imparted to him, to which function 
it is essential that it should be consciously and intelligently per- 
formed. 

According to Philo, the prophet is the interpreter of God, 



176 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

who makes him inwardly perceive what he is to speak. This 
Divine inspiration is received by the prophet in a state of 
ecstasy, which is said indeed to be distinctly different from the 
frenzy of madness, but in which self-consciousness is neverthe- 
less entirely suspended. 

Philo's view of the ecstatic character of the prophetic state 
passed over to the earliest Church Fathers. Athenagoras says 
that the Divine Spirit that moved the prophets used them as a 
flute- player does his instrument. This subj ect was not discussed 
more thoroughly until it became, as Tertullian intimates, a mat- 
ter of dispute between the Montanists and the Catholic Church 
Fathers. The latter disgusted with ecstasy as presented to them 
by the Montanist prophets, declared all convulsions which re- 
pressed rational co?isciousness unworthy of true prophecy, and 
only fit for the manticism produced by demoniacal powers. 
So in general Origen {d. 254), Epiphanius (d. 403),Chrysostom 
{d. 407) and Jerome (d. 420). Still the polemics of the Fathers 
as Tholuck justly remarks, do not deny the existence of every 
ki?id of ecstasy in the case of the organs of revelation. They 
could not thus set themselves in opposition to the clear state- 
ments of Holy Scripture. 

§ 208. View of this Subject in the Older Protestant Theology. 

The propositions laid down by the Fathers, in opposition 
to the Montanists, were repeated by the older Protestant theolo- 
gians. The prevailing theory of inspiration being applied to 
prophecy, the Protestant theologians assumed, in the case of 
prophets, both an entire passivity in the reception of revelation, 
and a continued state of rational consciousness, with at most 
but momentary intermissions. 

This whole subject received, however, a powerful impetus, 
when Hengstenberg (in the first edition of his Christology) re- 
vived in all its rigid one-sidedness the Montanist theory of 
prophecy. For he laid down the proposition that the prophets, 
when recipients of revelation, were in an extraordinary con- 
dition, essentially differing from their usual state — in an ecstasy, 
in which the intelligent consciousness retreated, and the spon- 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 177 

taneity, being suppressed by a powerful operation of the Divine 
spirit, was reduced to a state of passivity. (In the second edi- 
tion of his Christology, Hengstenberg has essentially modified 
this earlier view). 

§ 209. Continuity and Elevation of the Individual Life in the Prophetic 
State. 

In the earlier view maintained by Hengstenberg, truth and 
error are blended. It is true that in prophecy states do occur 
in which the individual life is subjugated by the power of the 
Divine Spirit, but it is not true that these coincide with the state 
of prophetic revelation, nay, they are not even essential thereto. 

Isaiah, in his initiatory vision (Isa. 6), is conscious that his 
iniquity is taken away and his sin purged, and declares him- 
self ready in consequence to undertake the Divine commission. 
Jeremiah, too, in his inaugural vision ( Jer. i), was conscious 
of his weakness. It is true that Ezekiel, when he received the 
vision fell down overpowered by the sight (Ezek. i : 28), but 
in order to receive the revelation he had to stand up again, and 
that in the power of the Spirit who entered into him (Ezek. 2: 
1, 2). It is true also that Daniel sank down stunned in conse- 
quence of a vision (Dan. 10: 8 — 10), but he did not receive the 
revelation till he had recovered himself. Besides the prophets 
felt themselves inwardly elevated (Isa. 8: 11, 12; Jer. 1: 19; 
etc.). 

§ 210. Propheey an Inward Tuition. 

Undoubtedly the prophets were often in a state of excited 
feeling at the times when they uttered their predictions, and 
did not, as merely mechanical instruments of the inspiring 
Spirit, comport themselves in an utterly indifferent manner 
with respect to their prophecies. But that in such cases the 
frame of mind was of secondary importance, that it was pro- 
duced by the objective influence of the Divine Spirit, is evi- 
dent especially from the circumstance that the feeling natural 
to the prophet was frequently exchanged lor just its opposite. 
Compare the prophecy concerning Moab (Isa. 16: 9 — 11), and 



178 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

that concerning Babylon (Isa. 21 : 1 — 10), where this state of 
mind is very distinctly portrayed. 

The psychical form of prophecy is rather that of an inward 
intuition, taking the word in its wider signification. It belongs 
to this intuition that the prophet is aware that the matter of 
revelation is directly given, and not produced by his own 
agency; and this is just what the prophets affirm with respect 
to their prophecies. Hence the prophets designate themselves 
as seers. Sometimes this inward perception of the prophets 
is also styled a hearing (Isa. 21: 10; etc.). The prophets, 
however, chiefly choose the expression to see, even when it is a 
mere form of speech, for the manner in which they became 
directly conscious of the God-given matter (Amos 1: 1; Isa. 
2: 1; Hab. 2: 1). 

What now the prophet perceives is a word of Jehovah, an 
oracle of Jehovah (which latter expression represents the mys- 
terious nature of the inwardly perceived Divine voice), a massa 
(a lofty or eminent saying, according to Oehler; a burden, ac- 
cording to Hengstenberg). When, however, the image awak- 
ened by the revelation appears in a plastic form before the 
mind of the prophet, a vision in the stricter sense takes place, 
and this is of a symbolical character, the matter of the proph- 
ecy being reflected in the imagination of the prophet. With 
respect to visional symbolism, there is a remarkable difference 
between individual prophets. In some, especially the more 
ancient, it is simple, and therefore for the most part easily un- 
derstood, e.g., the visions of Amos (the devouring locusts and 
the consuming fire as images of the Divine judgments (Amos 
7 : 1 — 6), the plumb-line laid to the wall as symbolical of the 
dealings of the Divine justice (Amos 7 : 7 — 9), the basket of 
ripe fruit as an image of the nation ripe for judgment (Amos 8 : 
1, 2). In Ezekiel, Zechariah, and Daniel, on the contrary, the 
symbolism is more complicated and cases occur in which the 
prophet himself does not understand the images he beholds, 
and requests an explanation of them (Zech. 4:4; Dan. 8 : 15). 
The prophets are, moreover, frequently required to express the 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 179 

substance of the Divine messages by symbolical actions. In 
many of these cases, however, (especially in Ezekiel), it may 
be questioned whether the action really took place externally, 
as e. g., in Isa: 20: 2, or whether it belongs merely to vision. 
(There is scarcely a point in prophetic theology concerning 
which theologians so greatly differ. No general principle can 
be laid down by which to determine how far such actions per- 
tain to the province of the external or the internal). 

§ 211. The Prophetic State illustrated by Analogies in the Ordinary Life 
of the Spirit. Dreams, Communion with God in Prayer. 

Although the Old Testament does not exclude the dream 
as a medium of revelation, nevertheless a subordinate import- 
ance is attributed to dreams. Although sleep, by reason of its 
withdrawal of a man from the external world, seems specially 
favorable for the intercourse of the Divine with the human 
spirit ; still, on the other hand, a man in this condition is not 
duly capable of distinguishing between what proceeds from his 
own heart and Divine inspiration. 

In far the greater number of cases we must evidently con- 
ceive of the state in which the prophet receives a revelation as 
merely one of profound self- introversion and collected?iess of 
mind in a state of perfect wakefulness. This prophetic state 
is most nearly related to communion with God in prayer. 

§ 212. The Conceptions of Genius and the Natural Powers of Divination. 

In explaining Old Testament prophecy, the attempt has of- 
ten been made to refer it to prophetic powers inherent in the 
human mind, and manifesting themselves in the conceptions of 
genius. 

But does this natural divination know anything positively 
respecting the purposes of God's ways upon earth ? On the 
the other hand, the prophets knew that the thoughts of God, 
of which they were the interpreters, are as high above the 
thoughts of man as heaven is higher than earth (Isa. 55: 8, 9). 

The matter of revelation is not, strictly speaking, the men- 
tal property of the prophets, but continues to be a thing im- 



180 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA, 

parted. Hence its meaning was not fully grasped by their un- 
derstanding, but was, as St. Peter tells us (i Pet. i : 10), a mat- 
ter of investigation to themselves. 

2. Of Prophecy (§ 213-216). 

§ 213. The Offlee of Prophecy in General. 

If we regard the collective contents of the prophetic books 
of the Old Testament, we must say that prophecy is employed 
entirely in promoting the interest of the Kingdom of God, and 
that its main office is to unfold its ways. 

§ 214. The Prediction of Particular Events an Essential Element of 
Prophecy. 

According to the theory of some, the sole essential feature 
of Prophecy is declared to be its expression of the general ideas 
of the Divine government, while its prediction of particular 
events is, on the other hand, to be regarded as comparatively 
unessential and subordinate; nay, the very admissibility of 
prediction is denied by the rationalistic party, on the ground 
of its destroying human freedom and interfering with history. 

The question which concerns us here is whether prophecy 
does or does not attribute to itself as essential the characteristic 
of predicting particular events? In answer it is sufficient to 
bring forward, besides the fundamental passage Deut. 18 : 22, 
the very decided expressions contained on this subject in Isa. 
40 and following chapters. Here we find the greatest emphasis 
laid upon the circumstances that the deliverance of Israel from 
the Babylonian captivity had been long predicted by prophecy, 
and that the prophet now speaking foretells the appearance ot 
Cyrus before it takes place. It maintains also that the predic- 
tion of such particular events is a proof that the God of Israel 
is the true God, while on the other hand it asserts that the van- 
ity of the heathen gods is manifested by their inability to fore- 
tell anything (Isa. 41: 21 — 28; 42: 9). In this last passage 
(42: 9), the idea of pure prediction could hardly be more pre- 
cisely ^expressed (compare also Isa. 43: 9 — 13; 44: 25 — 28; 

45:121). 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 181 

§ 215. The Peculiarities of Old Testament Propheey. 

i. The matter of revelation being given to the prophets 
in the form of intuition, the future appeared to them as im- 
mediately present, complete, or at all events in progress. How 
great soever the distance, according to human computation, of 
the things predicted, they are actually in train to the prophetic 
eye, all that intervenes can only help to hasten their fulfilment 
(Hab. 2: 3). What the prophet sees are simply "the things 
which must shortly come to pass" (Rev. i: i); for in the invis- 
ible world which is disclosed to the prophet, all is active, in 
motion, about to approach. 

Connected with this peculiarity of prophecy is the circum- 
stance that it gives for the most part only a subordinated im- 
portance to dates. Sometimes the dates given have evidently a 
symbolical meaning, and must not for this reason be pressed 
to the very letter. In general, the word of the Lord, "It is not 
for you to know times or seasons, which the Father hath set 
within His own authority" (Acts i: 7), applies also to the 
prophets, who limit themselves to indefinite dates, such as, "in 
that day", "after this", etc. The Old Testament prophecy is 
always directed to the consummation of the Kingdom of God, 
and announces the ways in which God conducts His purpose of 
salvation, from the actual present to its appointed end. In 
other words, what takes place "at the end of the days", i. e., at 
the close of this dispensation, forms the boundary of the pro- 
phetic horizon. This "end", in prophetic diction is the time of 
the consummation of redemption (Hos. 3:5; Jer. 48: 47; Ezek. 
38 : 16). The event next preceding this "end" is judgment, 
and indeed judgment both upon the rebellious people of God 
and the sinful world. Thus the matter of prophecy may be 
defined by its three elements,— -guilt, judgment, (first upon the 
house of God, then upon the world), redemption. The pro 
gress of the kingdom of God forms itself in prophetic vision, 
into a picture in which judgment generally forms the fore- 
ground and redemption the background. Thus prophecy be- 
holds in every event the coming of the Judge and Saviour of 



182 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

the world to set up His kingdom. In this combination of the 
nearer and more distant future, lies what has been called the 
perspective character of prophecy. Bengel aptly designates 
this characteristic when in his Gnomon on Matt. 24: 29, he 
says: ''A prophecy resembles a landscape painting, which 
marks distinctly the houses, paths, and bridges in the fore 
ground, but brings together, into a narrow space, the distant val- 
leys and mountains, though they are really far apart." This char- 
acteristic of prophecy is manifested with especial beauty in the 
Book of Isaiah (40 — 66). To the prophets themselves, more- 
over, the time when their predictions should be fulfilled was, as 
we are told a subject of investigation (1 Pet. 1: 11). 

2. The fact that the matter of prophecy is given in the 
form of such an intuition, also furnishes the reason why it al- 
ways sees the realization of that matter in particular events 
which are complete in themselves. In the fulfilment, on the 
contrary, that which is but momentary in the prophetic intui- 
tion is accomplished by a process of long and gradual devel- 
opment ; and when a prediction attains its first stage of fulfil 
ment, there opens out from the standpoint of subsequent 
prophets, a new perspective toward the consummation of judg- 
ment and redemption. 

§ 216. The Peeuliarities of the Old Testament Prophecy Continued. 

3. Since the matter of prophecy presents itself to view as 
a multitude of individual facts, it may sometimes appear as 
though single predictions contradicted each other, when they 
are in fact only those parts into which the ideas revealed have 
been sepdrated, mutually completing each other. Thus e. g., 
the representation of the Messiah is at one time that of a gen- 
tle Prince of Peace, at another that of a powerful and warlike 
hero who overthrows his enemies ; on the one side a successful 
ruler, on the other the servant of God who atones for the sins 
of the people by undergoing death. The internal harmony of 
the two views — that Christ is our peace and at the same time 
one who has come to send a sword, that the kingdom of God 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 183 

is at once a contending and a peaceful kingdom — is first found 
in the New Testament. 

4. The matter of prophecy being given to the prophets in 
the form of intuition, it is brought down, so far as its form is 
concerned, to the plane of the beholder himself; hence proph- 
ecy is affected by the limits of the sphere of Old Testament 
life, the special relations of the age, and the individual peculiar- 
ity of the prophet. The future kingdom of God is beheld by 
the prophets as being in all essential matters an extended and 
glorified form of the Old Testament theocracy. The admis- 
sion of the nations into this kingdom is their traveling to Mount 
Zion (Isa. 2), etc. One may often feel, when reading the pro- 
phetic word, how much further the spiritual meaning reaches 
than the letter expresses ; how prophecy struggles, as it were, 
to give its thoughts an adequate embodiment. Compare such 
descriptions as Zech. 2 and similar passages. In virtue of the 
organic connection existing between the two Testaments, revel- 
ation brings forth in the New Testament, circumstances, con- 
ditions and facts, which are analogous, even with respect to 
their external form, to their pre- representation in the Old. 
And this is to say that the Old Testament form with which the 
matter of prophecy is covered, is typical of the form of the 
New Testament fulfilment, and that the coincidence of the two 
may extend to individual features. So e. g. y in the prophetic 
delineation of the Servant of the Lord atoning by His death for 
the sins of the people, and afterward glorified. But it would 
ill become an expositor to attempt to determine beforehand 
how far the last form of the kingdom of God is to coincide 
with the prophetic description of the last things. 

5. Finally, in forming a correct judgment of the relation 
between prophecy and fulfilment, the point yet remains to be 
considered, that God in His revelation placed Himself in an 
historical relation with mankind, and the kingdom of God 
therefore advancing, not by a process of nature, but as a moral 
institution, the fulfilment of prophecy is not placed outside the 
sphere of human freedom, although the Divine counsel cannot 



184 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

in the end fail to come to pass in spite of all opposition. The 
teachings of prophecy, like the law, subserve an educational 
purpose, by making disclosures concerning the future to man 
for his good. The Old Testament declares as clearly as possi- 
ble, that not every predicted judgment must of necessity be 
inflicted in the manner spoken; that the Divine threatening 
leaves man for a long time space for repentance ( Jer. 18 : i — 
10). In the non fulfilment, however, of His threats and 
promises, God acts not arbitrarily, but according to a law of 
righteous retribution. This doctrine forms, as is obvious, one 
of the fundamental thoughts of the Book of Jonah (3: 3 — 10). 
There is, however, a limit to the respites granted by God's 
long- suffering. So, too, when blessings are predicted, the ful- 
filment of such prediction depends upon moral causes, viz., 
upon the obedient submission of the people to the Divine will, 
while, nevertheless this fulfilment cannot be rendered doubtful 
by any obstacles which man can oppose to it. The question 
here arises, is the consummation of redemption possible while 
Israel is, as a nation, in a state of rejection? The Old Testa- 
ment returns an absolute negative to this question. It speaks 
only of a temporary rejection, which, moreover, takes place in 
such wise that Israel does not perish as a nation, but is pre- 
served for future restoration. Was then this law abolished 
when Israel rejected the gracious visitation of their Messiah, 
and when the kingdom of God was taken away from them and 
given to a nation bringing forth the fruits thereof (Matt. 21: 
43)? The New Testament also answers this question in the 
negative (Rom. 11 : 25, 26). 

IV. Of the Kingdom of God (§ 217 — 234). 

%217. Survey. 

The chief elements in the process of the development of the 
kingdom of God now come under consideration. Sinful Israel 
belied its blessed vocation. God's holiness obliges Him to 
do away with this contradiction. The means by which He 
effects this end is the infliction of judgment. The attribute, in 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 185 

virtue of which God thus determines the progress of His king- 
dom on earth by judgment and deliverance is His righteous- 
ness. 

1. The Purpose of God's Kingdom. The Contradiction thereto presented 
by the Present. The Abolition of this Contradiction by Judgment (§ 218 — 
221). 
■ §218. 1. The Design of God's Kingdom. 

The idea of God's purpose in setting up a kingdom includes 
the following elements: 

i) Jehovah as the Creator and Lord of the world is in 
Himself the God of all nations; but. 

2) He is not yet God to all nations, and is only manifest 
as God to Israel, His chosen people ; 

3) By means of Israel, however, He is to be universally 
known and acknowledged ; as He is now the king of His own 
people, His kingdom is to be set up among all the nations of 
the world by their means. 

Of these elements, the first two, are clearly contained in the 
Pentateuch. The latter thought is first brought into full light 
by prophecy. In the older prophets, indeed, the political hor- 
rizon is still very limited, including at first only the neighbor- 
ing nations; but when Israel appeared on a wider historical 
stage, prophecy clearly and completely recognized that govern- 
ment of the God of Israel which embraces all nations, deter- 
mines their history, and directs all their ways toward the ac- 
complishment of His own purposes. The purpose, however, 
of all this intervention of God in the heathen world is ex- 
pressed, — "that unto me every knee shall bow; every tongue 
swear" (Isa. 45: 23). The Book of Daniel, in particular por- 
trays in magnificent touches the universality of the Divine 
kingdom: "God changeth the times and the seasons; he re- 
moveth kings, and setteth up kings" (Dan. 2: 21). 

§ 219. 2. The Relation of the Present to the Purpose of the Divine 
Kingdom. 

What, then, it may be asked, is the relation of the present 
to the purpose of God's kingdom? Israel and the nations of the 



186 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

world are in a state of contradiction thereto. Israel, which was 
to be the means of converting the heathen to God, had become 
even worse than the heathen (Ezek. 5: 5 — 10). In what rela- 
tion, then, do the heathen stand to the kingdom of God ? The 
heathen are under the Divine displeasure not on account of their 
not being Jews, but on account of their idolatry, the folly and 
worthlessness of which they might readily have perceived (Isa. 
44 : 9; Jer. 10: 8 — 10; Ps. 115: 4 — 8 ; etc.). That, however, which 
properly exposes the heathen to the judgments proceeding 
from the God of Israel, is their enmity toward the covenant 
people. 

3. The Judgment (§ 220, 221). 

% 220. The Day of the Lord. The Judgment upon the Covenant Peo- 
ple. 

"God the Holy one sanctifies Himself in righteousness" (Isa. 
5: 16), by sending destructive judgments upon all that opposes 
His purpose of redemption, and thus insuring the triumph of 
His kingdom. The usual designation of this final theocratic 
judgment is "the day of Jehovah" (Joel 1: 15; Zeph. 1: 7); 
"the day of Jehovah's anger" (Zeph. 2: 3); "the great and ter- 
rible day of Jehovah" (Mai. 4: 5). The features by which the 
prophets portray this day, the manner in which they describe 
it as announced and accompanied by terrible natural pheno- 
mena (Joel 2: 30, 31: Isa. 13: 9, 10; Zeph. 1: 15, 16), are not 
to be regarded as merely poetic coloring, but rest upon the 
scriptural view of the inalienable connection between the course 
of nature and the progress of the Divine kingdom. 

There is a close connection between the judgments on the 
covenant people and the judgments on the heathen world. They 
seem to stand in immediate connection in the great picture of 
judgment in Zephaniah (1 and 2). More strictly speaking, 
however, the relation of the two judgments to each other is, 
that the judgment of Israel in point of time precedes, that of 
the nations of the world, follows. Judgment must first begin at 
the house of God, as the apostle Peter expresses it (1 Pet. 
4 : 17). And Ezekiel, in the majestic vision recorded in Ezek. 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 187 

9, sees judgment beginning at the sanctuary and those who 
are called to be its guardians. 

There is also a historical progress observable in the an- 
nouncement of judgment upon the covenant people. In the 
Book of Joel, Judah is to incur only a visitation which leads 
the people to repentance. In Amos, the judgments to be in- 
flicted upon the ten tribes occupy the foreground. And after 
the catastrophe of Samaria fails to have the effect of leading 
Judah to repentance, prophecy announces henceforth the ruin 
of the kingdom of Judah, the destruction of the temple, the 
desolation of the land, and the captivity of the people, the 
locality of which is first designated as Babylon in Micah 4 : 10; 
Isa. 39: 6, 7. 

§ 221. The Judgment upon the Heathen Nations. 

The judgment inflicted upon His covenant people is held 
up by the Lord as a warning to the heathen. The view of the 
several prophets concerning the judgments upon the heathen 
world is fashioned according to the historical perspective im- 
posed upon each by contemporary events. The earliest de- 
scription is found in Joel 3. While then Amos, whose opening 
sentence (Amos 1 : 2) connects his prophecy with Joel 3: 16, 
divides this general judgment into many acts of national judg- 
ment, Isaiah again (Isa. 24 — 27) sets before us a representation 
of a general judgment of the world, without any definite his- 
torical connection, except that a return from Assyrian captivity 
is spoken of (Isa. 27: 13). On the other hand, prophecy, even 
in the Assyrian period, points onward beyond Assyria to Baby- 
lon. In Jeremiah the series of announcements of judgments 
upon the nations closes with the magnificent prediction of the 
fall of Babylon ( Jer. 50 and 51). 

The fall of Babylon is not, however, contemporaneous with 
the end of this dispensation, and accordingly the history of 
the world goes on, and with it the judgment of the world still 
proceeds. Here we have that remarkable prophecy of Ezekiel 
(Ezek. 38 and 39) concerning God and Magog, which predic- 
tion is made use of in the description of the last conflict against 



188 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

the Holy City (Rev. 20: 8). This prediction of judgment is 
then taken up by the post- Babylonian prophets. The passages 
in Zechariah (Zech. 12 — 14), especially chapter 14, are still 
more closely connected with the prophecy of Ezekiel concern- 
ing Gog, and at the same time carry on still further that of 
Joel. When things have come to the worst, Jehovah appears 
with all His saints upon the Mount of Olives for the deliver- 
ance of His people. This day of decision is a day of terrible 
darkness; but after the enemies, panic-striken by God, have 
now also helped to exterminate each other, the light of re- 
demption shall dawn on the evening of this last day of the 
present dispensation, 

We close this survey of Old Testament prophecy concern- 
ing the judgment of the world, with Daniel's prophecy of the 
four kingdoms. According to Dan. 2 and 7, the history of the 
world is to run its course in four kingdoms. This worldly 
power is destroyed at a blow by the kingdom of God coming 
from heaven. We cannot here more particularly discuss these 
four kingdoms. It will always be a matter of dispute whether 
to adopt the traditional interpretation, still advocated by 
Hengstenberg, Hofmann and others, which makes these king- 
doms to embrace the Babylonian (Chaldean), Med o- Persian, 
Grecian (Graeco- Macedonian), and Roman empires, or the now 
more usual one (of Delitzsch among others), which makes the 
fourth kingdom the Grecian, and explains the others variously, 
— mostly, however, regarding the second as the Median, the 
third as the Persian. Of special importance, however, is that 
feature in these delineations of Judgment, which repre- 
sents the arrogance of the secular power and its hostility to 
the kingdom of God as at last concentrated in a king, who, 
with a mouth speaking great things, blasphemes the Most 
High, and proceeds to destroy His worship and exterminate 
His saints ; who then for a period obtains power over the saints 
of the Most High, until the final judgment takes place and in- 
volves him to destruction (Dan. 7: 8, 11, 20, 21, 25, 26). 
(Compare Paul's description of Antichrist, "the man of sin," 
in 2 Thess. 2: 3 — 12). 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 189 

2. The Future Redemption (§ 222—234). 

1. The Deliverance and Restoration of the Covenant People (§ 222— 
226). 

§ 222. The Restoration of Israel a Necessary Event. 
The future redemption is represented as embracing - : 
i) The deliverance and restoration of the rejected cove- 
nant people in which even the just who have fallen asleep are to 
participate by the resurrection. 

2) The introduction of those heathen who have been saved 
from judgment into the kingdom of God by means of the re- 
stored covenant people. 

3) The prophecies concerning redemption culminate in 
the appearance of the Messiah. 

The restoration of Israel is not founded upon any claim 
that can be advanced by this people, but solely upon the nature 
of their God as the Holy and Faithful One. As Jehovah, He 
is the Faithful One, whose words of promise, given to the 
fathers of the nation who found favor in His sight, shall stand 
forever, while all that is earthly shall perish (Isa. 40: 7, 8). 
His faithfulness cannot be made void by the unfaithfulness of 
man. Nay, the Divine judgment of rejection is to have the 
effect of causing the whole power of the Divine love to shine 
forth (Jer. 31 : 20; Isa. 49: 14,15554; 7 — 10). But how does 
this love deliver? The answer is, 1) God so arranges that a 
restoration of this nation is possible ; and 2) He so restores 
the nation as to make it a fit instrument for the accomplishment 
of His purposes of redemption. 

§ 223. The Remnant of Jacob. The New Covenant an Everlasting one. 
The Forgiveness of Sins. The Outpouring of the Spirit. 

1. God's judgments have a purpose, and therefore a meas- 
ure, as taught by Isaiah in his profound parable (Isa. 28 : 24 — 
29). According to this measure, judgment is so inflicted upon 
Israel that they are preserved therein. And here we meet 
with the important prophetic doctrine of the remnant of Jacob. 
In these faithful ones, this ecclesia invisibilis of the old 
covenant, we have a pledge that the people of God shall not 



190 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

perish. The intercession of these servants of God procures a 
longer exemption from judgment for the people (Amos 7: 1 — 
6). For the sake of this seed of His servants, God will not 
exterminate Israel (Isa. 65: 8 — 10). This remnant of Jacob, 
Isaiah declares, shall return to the mighty God (Isa. 10: 21). 

2. In this restored remnant, the stock of the new Church, 
the Divine counsel is to attain its end, and that forever. The 
new covenant is everlasting (Hos. 2: 19; Jer. 31: 35 — 37). 
This restoration of the people does not indeed take place in a 
a magical manner ; it becomes possible on their part through 
deep repentance for former sins, and a zealous return to their 
God. Hence it is that when the Divine summons penetrates 
the lands of their captivity, the rejected ones hasten with tremb- 
ling, lest their deliverance should be delayed (Hos. 11: 10, 11), 
and return with weeping and supplications (Jer. 31; 9). The 
Divine forgiveness corresponds with the repentance of the 
people, and is complete. The fact that God thus restores the 
people to the same relation to himself, is their righteousness 
from Him (Isa. 54: 17). But this righteousness of grace, 
which thus abolishes sin, becomes also a righteousness of life, 
a new vital principle being implanted in the church by the out- 
pouring of the Divine Spirit. The new church is a spiritual 
church (Isa. 59: 21; Ezek. 39: 29). But such guidance was 
effected only by an indwelling of the Holy Spirit, and even in 
the prophets this influence was an extraordinary endowment. 
The church of the future, on the contrary, is founded upon 
an outpouring of the Spirit upon all flesh ( Joel 2 : 28, 29). 
No age or station is excluded from the possession of the Spirit. 
With this agree also the passages in Jer. 31: 34; Isa. 54: 13. 
This is confirmed by John 6: 45; 1 John 2: 20, 27, which 
again take up these prophetic utterances. But these passages 
are not intended to do away with human means for obtaining 
a knowledge of saving truth, but to proclaim the independence 
of human authority enjoined by each member of the church 
with respect to his assurance of salvation. They promise 
that Divine truth shall be directly testified to by the Holy 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 191 

Spirit in each member of this church. This impartation of 
the Holy Spirit, besides communicating a vital knowledge of 
God, purines the heart and creates a readiness to fulfil the 
Divine will (Ezek. 36: 25 — 27; Jer. 31: 33). And thus the 
end of the Old Testament educational work is attained ; the 
holy people of God is also a subjectively holy church. 

§ 224. Other Features of the Times of Redemption. 

The other features of the times of redemption are, accord- 
ing to prophetic intuition, the following: 

1. The return of the people to the Holy Land, and the re- 
storation of Jerusalem. The possession of the Holy Land is 
declared to be a perpetual one, from Joel 3: 20 and Amos 9: 
15 onward, with increase of territory (Obadiah 17 — 21). 

2. The re -union of the twelve tribes. This point is most 
fully treated in the prophecy of Ezekiel (37: 15 — 28). 

3. By reason of the causal connection between sin and evil, 
the restoration of the people being a deliverance from sin, is 
at the same time the abolition of evil in all respects — an aboli- 
tion of all the troubles of life. 

Zechariah (14 : 20, 21) expresses the thought that holiness 
is to penetrate even to that which is most external. Among 
the troubles of life so frequently summed up in the Old Testa- 
ment as the four chiel evils (the sword, famine, wild beasts, 
and pestilence) which shall be abolished, war is especially 
mentioned. All weapons are to be destroyed (Isa. 2: 4; Zech. 
9: 10); the new church is unapproachable in its protected re- 
tirement (Mic. 7: 14); the new city of God is no more to be 
desecrated by enemies (Joel 3: 17). Peace is also to pervade 
nature. Every blessing of heaven and earth is to be poured 
out upon the favored people; all that can harm them is to be 
done away with (Hos. 2 : 18 ; Amos 9: 13 — 15; Ezek. 34 : 25 

-SO- 

§ 225. Death Destroyed. 

The last enemy that shall be destroyed is death, in which 
the penalty inflicted on mankind for sin culminates. The voice 
of weeping shall be no more heard in the new Jerusalem (Isa. 



192 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

65: 19J. Yet in this very passage (verses 20 — 23), human life 
is only supposed to be of greater length, perhaps such as 
Genesis ascribes to primeval times. Here, then, a limitation of 
the power of death is spoken of, and also is still represented as 
possible. On the other hand, prophecy rises in some passages 
to a declaration of the annihilation of death, and of a resurrec- 
tion of the dead. The ultimate grounds on which the prophetic 
doctrine of the resurrection rests, are: 

1) The knowledge of the living God, who has power even 
over death and the regions of the dead (Deut. 32; 39; 1 Sam. 
2: 6). 

2) The importance of human personality, which is called 
to communion with God. 

Still it is not of the vanishing of death in the cases of indi- 
viduals that prophecy chiefly treats, but of the eternal duration 
of the church. This is guaranteed by the eternity of God, 
who is an inexhaustible source of life even to His perishing peo- 
ple (Isa. 40: 28). When the heavens wax old as doth a gar- 
ment, and are changed as a vesture, He remains the same, and 
therefore the seed of His servants shall outlast these changes 
of the universe (Ps. 102: 27, 28). And this very fact that the 
church rises again in renewed vigor after apparent destruc- 
tion, is also represented as her resurrection from death (Hos. 6: 
2; 13: 14). The last verse (Hos. 13: 14) points significantly 
to an actual conquest of death and the region of the dead; 
hence its citation in 1 Cor. 15: 55. 

§ 226. Death Destroyed {continued). 

In Isa. 25: 8, the prophet speaking of the times of redemp- 
tion, declares that the Lord would forever annihilate death and 
wipe away tears from all faces. This implied, in the first place, 
only the abolition of death for the church of that period; but in 
Isa. 26: 19 the prophecy goes further. On the day of the 
final judgment for which the Lord arises (Isa. 26: 21), the earth 
discloses her blood, and no more covers her slain ; these, accord- 
ing to the most probable explanation, being awakened to new 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 193 

life, obtain their justification. Advancing to still later prophecy, 
we first meet with Ezekiel's vision of the dry bones (Ezek. 37). 
From the times of the Church Fathers to the most recent ex- 
positors, it has been disputed whether the description in Ezek. 
37: 1 — 10 is to be understood literally of the resurrection of 
the dead, or symbolically of the restoration of the covenant 
people. After the almost exclusive adoption of the symboli- 
cal meaning in recent times, Hitzig and Kliefoth have again 
revived the literal interpretation. In any case, however, the 
vision is of the greatest importance in the development of the 
doctrine of the resurrection, which, though not resulting there- 
from as its direct application, is yet implied by its obvious ap- 
plication. The resurrection of the dead is, however, decidedly 
taught in Dan. 12: 2, 13. According to the connection of Dan. 
12: 2 with Dan. 11: 33, 35, the promise of a resurrection to 
life (Isa. 26: 19) is made especially with reference to those who 
have maintained their fidelity to God by a confessor's death. 
The expression "many", however, must not be taken in a par- 
tial sense. It is not used in opposition to those who do not 
rise, but merely as expressing a great number. The resurrec- 
tion of the ungodly first appears in Daniel (12 : 2), though the 
transition to it is formed by Isa. 66: 24. Daniel is speaking 
only of a resurrection of Israel, not of that of all men; the 
latter not being expressly mentioned in the Old Testament, 
though an allusion to it may be found in Isa. 24 : 22. 

2. The Admission of the Heathen into the Kingdom of God{%227, 228). 

§ 221. The Extension of the Kingdom of God in the Times of Redemp- 
tion. 

The opposition of the heathen world to the divinely pur- 
posed kingdom of God, is subdued by the destructive judg- 
ment inflicted on it. But this judgment is to have also a posi- 
tive result. As, however, Israel is to be restored only 
in its sifted remnant, so also it only the remnant of 
the heathen rescued from judgment who do homage 
to the Lord (Zech. 14: 16). To the intuition of the 
older prophets, this enlargement of the kingdom of God by 



194 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA, 

the admission of the heathen is first of all an extension of the 
theocracy as it existed under David and Solomon, when heathen 
nations were subject to the sceptre of the theocratic king 
(Amos 9: 11, 12). On the other hand, we are placed upon the 
heights of prophetic intuition in the descriptions of the latter 
days given in Isa. 2: 2 — 4, and Mic. 4: 1 — 4. All nations are 
going to Zion, which is spiritually elevated above all the moun- 
tains of the world, to receive there the Divine law as the rule 
of their lives, while universal peace prevails under the rule of 
Jehovah. But it is especially in the Book of Isaiah (40 — 66) 
that the mission of Israel as the servant of the Lord, to be the 
medium of revelation to all mankind, forms one of the funda- 
mental thoughts. 

In this consummation of redemption, the theocratic relation 
in which Jehovah in Old Testament times stood to Israel, is 
transferred to all mankind. The Lord has become the King of 
all nations (Zech. 14: 16, 17; Isa. 24: 23; etc.). All the treas- 
ures of the world, all the most precious possessions of the 
Gentiles, now conduce to the glory of the Divine kingdom, 
and are used for the adornment of the city and temple of God 
(Isa. 60: 9 — 11; Hag: 2: 7). 

§ 228. The Conditions under whieh the Admission of the Heathen into 
the Kingdom of God is to take place. 

The coming of this kingdom of God which embraces all 
nations, is, however, combined, according to prophetic intuition, 
with the fact that Israel is to remain the mediatory nation at 
the head of the nations, and Jerusalem with its temple to form 
the central point of the kingdom to which the nations are to 
journey. The incorporation of the heathen in the kingdom 
of God is in Ps. 87 represented as their acquisition of rights of 
citizenship in Jerusalem, to which also the passage in Isa. 56: 
3 — 7 refers. Prophecy does not contemplate the abolition of 
sacrifice in the coming period of salvation, for the rites of wor- 
ship in this future and enlarged kingdom of God are connected 
in respect to sacrifice and festival, with the Old Testament 
ritual. On the other hand there is no lack of pro- 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 195 

phetic passages in which the limitation of the Old Testa- 
ment ritual are broken through. We would here notice two 
remarkable prophetic passages in which the connection with 
the place of worship in Jerusalem is effaced, i) Mai i: n, a 
passage quoted times without number by the Fathers, and 
claimed by Roman Catholic theologians as the chief passage in 
favor of the sacrifice of the mass. 2) Side by side with this 
may be placed the noted prophecy concerning Egypt in Isa. 
19, which speaks of a worship of Jehovah instituted not by Is- 
raelites but by Egyptians, and indeed in the land of Egypt. 
Thus did the spirit of prophecy struggle to overcome particu- 
larism by exhibiting the Divine purpose concerning the king- 
dom of God. Oehler gives us no hint as to the manner in 
which these prophecies pertaining to sacrifice and temple wor- 
ship should be interpreted, whether literally, or typically and 
metaphorically. A literal interpretation is scarcely possible, 
for as the apostles described in the words of this world the 
things of the world to come, so the prophets depicted the spir- 
itual kingdom of Christ in words taken from earthly things 
connected with the state of the Church under the Old Testa- 
ment, and which, therefore, are to be explained typically. 

3. The Messiah (§ 229-234). 

§ 229. Twofold view of the Consummation of Redemption. The Word 
Messiah. The Roots of the Messianic Hope in the Pentateuch. 

The consummation of redemption is according to prophetic 
intuition, introduced on the one hand by the personal coming 
of Jehovah in His glory, but on the other by the coming of a 
king of the race of David, the Messiah. The former view 
prevails in a great number of passages. The two views are 
placed in juxtaposition in Ezek. 34. The Lord here declares 
himself against the unfaithful shepherds of His people, who 
have suffered them to perish. He will, it is at first said in 
verses 11 — 15, Himself feed His sheep. But then the prophecy 
turns directly in ver. 23 to the other view: "I will set up one 
shepherd over them, and he shall feed them, even my servant 
David ; he shall feed them, and he shall be their shepherd." 



196 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Then in ver. 24 the two views are thus connected: "And I 
the Lord will be their God, and my servant David prince 
among them." 

Now this son of David in whom Old Testament prophecy 
culminates is the Messiah. The word Mashiahh ( Ckristos, 
anointed) is used in the Old Testament first as the designation 
of every one anointed with the holy anointing oil, but especially 
is "The Lord's anointed" the title of the theocratic king ; and 
on this account it became, chiefly by reason of the passages 
Ps. 2: 2, Dan. 9: 25, the proper name of that descendant of 
David who was to achieve complete redemption, and bring to 
its consummation the kingdom of God. 

The Messianic hope had already struck root in a series of 
passages in the Pentateuch, and here come under consideration 
thepassagesinGen. 3: 15; 49: 10; Num.24: 17,18; Deut. 18: 

15—19. 

§ 230. The Promise, 2 Sam. 7, as the Foundation of the Messianie Idea 
in its stricter sense. The Messianic Psalms. 

2 Sam. 7, forms in a twofold respect the starting-point for 
the more definite form of the Messianic idea, — 1) by the fact 
that the consummation of the kingdom of God for which Israel 
was chosen, is from this time forward connected with a king 
who, as the son of God, i. e., the representative of Jehovah, 
and, fitted by Him to be the depositary of the Divine sover- 
eignty on earth, — stands in a relation of most intimate connec- 
tion with God ; and 2) in that it is established for all time that 
this king is to be a son of David. How glorious the view of 
the Davidic kingdom is rendered by the promise in 2 Sam. 7, 
is first shown by the last song of David (2 Sam. 23). But 
sacred poetry, under the impulse of the Spirit, now creates a 
kingly image, in which all that the present manifests is far sur- 
passed, and the kingship of David and Solomon beheld in typi- 
cal perfection. This leads us to the Messianic Psalms (2, 45, 
72, no), with respect to which three different views have at all 
times existed. 1) Some refer these Psalms to some actual Is- 
raelite king ; but since they idealize his government, and thus 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 197 

transfer to him predicates (such as the right to universal sover- 
eignty, Ps. 2: 2, and the union of an everlasting priesthood 
with his kingship, Ps. no), which cannot find in him their full 
historical accomplishment, they typically point to the future 
realizer of the theocratic kingship. 2) Others maintain that 
the psalmist, filled with the idea of the theocratic kingship, 
really rises in these psalms to the view of an individual in 
whom this idea is perfectly realized, and hence, according to 
the mind of the spirit, is speaking of the coming Messiah. 
3) Others again distinguish between the original signification of 
these psalms, by which they refer to an historical king, and 
the use which, as prophetic and Messianic songs of praise, 
they subsequently acquired in Divine worship. 

Oehler holds that the third view is especially applicable to 
Ps. 45, but grants that the directly Messianic interpretation is 
fully borne out in Ps. 2, 72, and no. 

§ 231. The Development of the Idea of the Messiah in the Prophets, 
The Older Prophetic Writings. The Prophetic Doetrine concerning the Nature 
of the Messiah. 

Full and detailed predictions of the Messiah are not met 
with till after the middle of the eight century, in Isaiah and 
Micah. Such Messianic prophecy is, however, by no means 
introduced by them as something absolutely new and till now 
alien to the prophetic consciousness. 

1) To sum up the essential features of Messianic prophecy, 
let us inquire, what does prophecy teach concerning the 
nature of the Messiah? Does it attribute to Him a super 
human dignity? The meaning of almost all the passages on 
this subject has been made a matter of controversy. 

We begin with Micah 5: 2 — 4. The words speak either 
1 ) of an eternal and Divine origin of the Messiah (so Caspari, 
Boehl and others, the correct view), or state 2) that the entire 
sacred history from its very beginnings contains the goings forth 
of the Messiah, the preparatory elements of his coming (so Hof- 
mann and Orelli). It is noticeable too that the prophets, how- 
ever near at hand their intuition may make the advent of the Mes- 



198 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

siah, never speak of Him as the son of any actually existing 
king. 

The passage Mic. 5: 3 is parallel with the prophecy Isa. 7: 
14 of the birth of Immanuel from the virgin, a passage whose 
reference to the Messiah is demanded by its connection with 
Isa. 9: 6, though the interpretation at present prevailing re- 
gards it as only typically Messianic. The mysterious nature, 
however, of the expression can neither here nor in Micah be 
mistaken, and Ewald as well as Orelli and Boehl have defended 
its Messianic interpretation. 

The exalted nature of the Messiah, however, is more defin- 
itely brought forward in Isa. 9: 6, 7. The Messiah is evi- 
dently regarded as a Divine being, though here also the ex- 
pressions are mysteriously indefinite. 

How close, side by side, the two lines of promise, — the ap- 
pearance of God and the appearance of the Messiah — run, and 
seem almost to touch without uniting, is shown also by the 
Messianic predictions of the subsequent prophets. In Jer. 23: 
5>* 33 : I 5 tne Messiah is described as the Branch of righteous- 
ness, and "Branch" becomes even a proper name of the Messiah 
(Zech. 3: 8; 6: 12). The chief Messianic passage in Daniel is 
found in Dan. 7: 13, 14. Although the interpretation of this 
passage has been controverted, the traditional exegesis, as far 
as it can be followed back has regarded the Son of Man as the 
Messiah, who hence appears, as Paul says, as the Lord from 
heaven. 

§ 232. The Offiee and Work of the Messiah. 

2) With respect to the office and work of the Messiah, 
these are, as the name itself implies, first those of a king. His 
coming presupposes the rejection of the nation, and the deep- 
est humiliation of the house of David; hence the Messianic 
kingdom rises from an abject to a glorious state. This thought 
is expressed in Mic. 5: 2, but especially in Isa. 11: 1. With 
this corresponds the description Zech. 9: 9, 10. It is not with 
the pomp of an earthly conqueror, but with lowly array and 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 199 

riding upon an ass, that the Messiah makes His entry into 
Jerusalem. Beginning at Jerusalem, He founds a peaceful 
kingdom, which is to reach from sea to sea, and from the river 
to the ends of the earth. 

An important question here arises: Does the Old Testa- 
ment also speak of a suffering Christ? i. e., of one who atones 
by death and suffering for the sins of the people. The Messi- 
anic passages quoted hitherto do not involve this. But to- 
gether with these statements, there is another prophetic view 
which points to a servant of God who suffers in the place of the 
people, to an act of atonement on which the dawning of the 
day of redemption depends, to the priesthood of the Messiah. 
To show the connection between this branch of prophecy and 
the whole doctrinal system of the Old Testament, it will be 
necessary to enter somewhat more into detail. 
§ 233. The Office and Work of the Messiah, continued. 

In Ps. 22 a guiltless sufferer, exposed to ruthless enemies 
and undergoing agonizing torture, prays for deliverance from 
his misery. While he is wrestling in prayer, faith triumphs. 
Then follows a description how, in consequence of this Divine 
act of deliverance, all who are afflicted and exposed to death find 
refreshment at the sacrificial feast made by the rescued sufferer. 
This description at the end of the psalm recalls especially the 
predicted feast of the Messianic days (Isa. 25: 6 — 8), which 
God is preparing upon Mount Zion for all nations. Whether 
the psalm was occasioned by the experience ol a David, a 
Jeremiah, or some other servant of God, the details are min- 
utely descriptive of the Messiah and far surpass anything that 
could be predicated of any Old Testament character. 

That the intercession of the righteous for a sinful nation is 
effectual, is a thought running through the entire Old Testa- 
ment. The prophecy of redemption is not complete till it be- 
holds an individual advocating the cause of the people before 
God ; and this is the servant of fehovah (Isa. 53), which can only 
refer to an individual Prophecy rises to the intuition of one 
in whom the image of the faithful servant is complete, — of one 



200 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

who, not for his own sins, but as a substitute of the people and 
for their sins, lays down his life as an offering for sin, a pay- 
ment in full for debt, but is, notwithstanding the prophetic 
message which points to him, despised and regarded by the 
people, for whom he appears, as stricken of God for his own 
transgressions, who is, moreover, treated even in death like the 
violent wicked and like those whom a curse follows even to 
the grave. But God leads him from the grave to glory, so that 
he is now the author of righteousness to many, and divides the 
spoil with the strong. 

§ 234. The Office and Work of the Messiah, continued. 

In Zechariah the Messiah distinctly appears as the future 
redeemer of the people, and indeed as their atoning High 
Priest. This future atoner to whom the present priesthood 
typically refers, is the Branch, the son of David, the Messiah 
(Zech. 6: g — 15; 12: 10 — 13). 

PART III. OLD TESTAMENT WISDOM (§ 235 — 250). 

§ 235. General Preliminary Remarks. 

The Old Testament Wisdom (Hhokhma) forms, with the 
law and prophecy, a special department of knowledge, to 
which three of the canonical books of the Old Testament (Job, 
Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes), and, in virtue of their matter, 
many of the Psalms also, pre-eminently belong. The law gives 
the commandments and claims of Jehovah. Prophecy pro- 
claims the word of the Lord, which reveals His counsels, and 
discloses the object of God's mode of government. The 
Hhokhma does not in an equal manner refer its matter to 
direct Divine causation. It has even been styled the philoso- 
phy of the Hebrews. But Old Testament wisdom is neverthe- 
less essentially different from other philosophy. It is based, 
indeed, upon the observation of nature and human affairs, and 
especially in the latter respect upon experience as handed 
down by the ancients (Job 12: 7 — 13; 5: 27; 8: 8 — 10). In 
such investigations of nature and human life, however, it is 
placed under a regulative factor which Greek wisdom does 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 201 

not possess ; it starts from a supernaturalistic assumption which 
the latter lacks. Its mode of procedure, is to endeavor, by- 
means of that key of knowledge which revelation affords, bet- 
ter to understand God's ways in the world, and through the 
knowledge of God's will furnished by the law, better to deter- 
mine the duties of human life. The Old Testament wisdom 
begins by abasing the self-sufficiency of natural knowledge, 
and giving glory to Divine revelation, i. e., it begins with the 
fear of the Lord, as it so often designates its subjective princi- 
ple of knowledge (compare Prov. 30: 1 — 6). 

§ 236. General Preliminary Remarks, continued. 

But how now does the Hhokhma obtain an objective princi- 
ple of knowledge f The Israelitish mind, reflecting on the acts 
and ways of God as handed down, and on the Divine ordinan- 
ces by whose discipline it has been strengthened, attains to the 
perception of their marvelous adaptation to their purpose, 
especially when it compared the law of Israel with the laws 
and statues of heathenism. This impression of the adaptation 
of the law to its purpose, which the Israelitish mind received, 
is, expressed in numerous passages of the Old Testament (Ps. 
147: 19,20; 19: 7 — 11), but especially Ps. 119, which proclaims 
in 176 verses the praises of the law. From the perception of 
the adaptation of the theocratic ordinances to the purpose of 
their institution the mind then advances to the thought of an 
all-embracing a?id all-ruling purpose. The purposes and 
government of God being then recognized outside the theo- 
cracy also, the universe is regarded not as a mere product of 
the power of God, who can create what He will (Ps. 115: 3; 
x 35 : 6), but as the product of the Divine plan. Thus arises 
the thought of the the Divine wisdom as the principle of the 
world; and this it is which is the objective principle of the 
Hhokhma. The task now presented to the Israelitish mind 
was to show that a Divine teleology exists everywhere, even be- 
yond the boundary defined by the theocratic ordinances, — a 
task to which, in prospect of the inexhaustible fulness here of- 
fered, it devoted itself with delight. 



202 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

1. Objective Divine Wisdom (§ 237—239). 

§ -257. The Part of Wisdom as an Attribute of God in the Universe. Its 
Personification. 

That the Divine intelligence, the Divine nous, is employed 
in the creation and preservation of the universe, is laid down 
as a general proposition in Prov. 3: 19, 20. Though wis- 
dom here appears only as an attribute of God, the well-known 
passage Prov. 8 : 22 — 36, goes further. Wisdom is personified 
in this passage, and is no longer regarded as a mere attribute 
of God, nor even as a dependent power, but as that creative, 
arranging, and energizing thought of the world which proceeds 
from God, and is objective even to Himself, or, to express it 
with Delitzsch in a more concrete manner, as the reflection of 
God's plan of the world, objective to Himself. That wisdom 
is the plan of the universe which proceeded from God, and 
which has itself become objective to God, is also very evident 
from Job 28 : 12 — 28. In both of these chief passages (Prov. 
8 and Job 28) wisdom is the principle of the world laid down 
by God, and not a creature like the things in the world, its 
coming forth from God being, on the contrary, the presupposi- 
tion of the world's creation. We cannot go further; but, as 
Nitzsch expresses it, we have here an unmistakable germ of 
the ontological self-distinction of the Godhead. How closely 
the Old Testament borders upon actually regarding Wisdom 
as a personal existence, is shown more especially by the re- 
markable passage in Job 15: 7, 8. How are we here reminded 
of "the one who is in the bosom of the Father" (John 1: 18)^ 
and how justly has Ewald found in this passage an echo of the 
subsequent idea of the Logos ! Perhaps, too, the "Son" of 
God in Prov. 30: 4 may also be thus explained. 
§ 238. The Old Testament View of Nature. 

In the Old Testament the world is not regarded merely as 
the product of power, but more definitely as the product of an 
almighty will ordering all in conformity with its purpose. It is 
according to this principle that the Old Testame?il view of 
nature must be defined. The ruling omnipotence of God is 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 203 

placed above all. He who has subjected all that is in heaven and 
on earth to His laws (Job 38: n, 33; Jer. 31: 35; 33: 25), makes 
also the course of nature subserve His purpose. This purpose 
is, in general, the manifestation of the Divine glory (see § 53). 
The order of nature is further placed in close connection with 
the moral order of the world. What the Mosaic doctrine of 
retribution teaches (see § 89) concerning this connection, viz., 
that the course of nature subserves the purpose of Divine 
justice, is maintained to its full extent in the Hhokhma. 
§ 239. The Control of Wisdom in Human Affairs. 
Not only nature, but human affairs, are controlled by wis- 
dom as an objective Divine principle. That same wisdom 
which is the governing principle of the universe, has taken up 
its abode on earth, and rules as a sovereign all the events of 
life, in which a Divine design, and therefore Divine intelligence, 
is everywhere perceptible. 

If we inquire more closely as to the means by which wisdom 
makes her appeal to man, Prov. 1: 23 points to those factors 
of revelation, the Word and the Spirit. Indeed the Word is the 
vehicle of the Spirit. The effect of this upon men is first 
designated as instruction. The idea of instruction is one of 
the fundamental ideas of the Proverbs of Solomon, — one of 
the seven pillars (Prov. 9: 1), as Oetinger says, upon which 
the house of wisdom is supported. Wisdom and instruction 
are inseparably connected (Prov. 1: 2, 7; 23: 23); the way to 
wisdom is called a reception of instruction (Prov. 1: 3; 19: 20). 
The preservation of wisdom is only possible by taking fast 
hold of instruction (Prov. 4: 13; 10: 17). Consequently it is 
with this instruction or reproof that the educational agency ol 
wisdom upon man must begin; for man is by nature ignorant 
of the way of salvation, and easily seduced to evil. He who 
will not be convinced, who in his self-sufficiency will not re- 
ceive the reproofs of instruction, nay, hates them, shows him- 
self thereby to bea/00/, brutish, and is in his incorrigibleness 
hastening to irretrievable ruin (Prov. 1: 24 — 27; 12: 1; 13: 18; 
etc.). 



204 THEOLOGICAL, ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

2. Subjective Human Wisdom (§ 240—242). 

§ 240. The Fear of the Lord the Subjective Principle of Wisdom. 
The subjective principle of Wisdom is, then, the fear of the 
Lord (Prov. i : 7). This fear of the Lord is the knowledge of 
the All- Holy (Prov. 9: 10). This Divine holiness addresses 
itself, in that law which reveals the perfect will of God, to the 
free will of man. Consequently the fear of the Lord, as the 
knowledge of the All- Holy, is based upon that will of God 
which opposes all selfish and sinful human efforts, and appoints, 
in conformity with His purpose of salvation, an end and meas- 
ure to all things; it is the dread of disobeying this holy will of 
God. Hence it involves, according to the just definition of its 
moral characteristics (Prov. 8: 13), "hatred of evil, pride, ar- 
rogancy, and the evil way." From this fear of God proceeds 
also the effort 1) to perceive in everything the end designed 
by the Divine will ; and 2) to realize it in every action, as it is 
said, "in all thy ways acknowledge him" (Prov. 3: 6). The 
former may be called theoretical, the latter practical wisdom. 

§ 241. Practical Wisdom. 

Subjective wisdom, though by no means excluding theoreti- 
cal questions, is yet for the most part practical, and bent upon 
accomplishing the holy will of God in human life. Since, how- 
ever, this will of God aims not only at the external consecra- 
tion of the life, but also at the sanctification of the heart and 
temper, the ethics of the Old Testament doctrine of wisdom 
does not treat only, as has been so often supposed, of a restora- 
tion of an external legality of conduct. The Ethics of the 
book of Proverbs seeks to arouse the fear of God, and of the 
all-seeing Searcher of hearts (Prov. 15: 11; 16: 2; etc.). Con- 
viction of sin is required (Prov. 20: 9). Prov. 28: 13 declares 
the duty of confessing sin, and the happiness of obtaining for- 
giveness. Sacrifice, as a mere external work is rejected (Prov. 
15: 8). 

§ 242. Practical Wisdom, continued. 

Notwithstanding what has been said, it must be confessed 
that the wisdom of the Proverbs is chiefly concerned with the 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 205 

sphere of the external life. The ethics of the Proverbs is ot 
an undeniably negative character, and presents by reason of 
the constant reflection upon the end designed by that will 
which they require, an appearance of coldness and extreme 
moderation. The impelling power of love is wanting as a 
motive. 

In consequence of this negative character, it is rather jus- 
tice than love which it is the duty a man owes to his neighbor; 
and it has even been made a matter of reproach against the 
ethics of these maxims, that they sometimes border upon the 
recommendation of a selfish prudence. But the Book of Prov- 
erbs has numerous maxims which relate to the practice of 
those duties resulting from the principle of love, placability 
being inculcated (Prov. 10: 12); the love of enemies (25: 21, 
22); peaceableness (17: 14; 20: 3); gentleness and patience 
(15: 1, 18); forbearance to the poor (22: 22), in impressing 
which last named virtue, it is expressly stated that the Creator 
is honored by him that hath mercy on the needy (14: 31). 

3. Moral Good (§ 243, 244). 

§ 243. Its Realization in the Individual Life. 

The teaching of the Hhokhma concerning the possession of 
earthly good is entirely based upon the Mosaic doctrine of re- 
tribution. What this expresses as the shall of promise and 
threatening, is announced in Proverbs as a fact, and that with 
the assurance arising from direct experience (13: 9, 21), A 
number of sayings on this subject are found in the speeches of 
the three friends of Job, who explicitly aim to exhibit the act- 
ual reality of the Divine law of retribution. That the life, 
which is the reward of wisdom, is regarded both in Proverbs 
and in the legal doctrine of retribution as earthly and of this 
world, is generally admitted; the question, however, is whether 
the teaching of Proverbs is limited thereto. Ewald, in particu- 
lar asserts that Proverbs teaches a happy life in another world. 
Upon the whole it is worthy of note that the Proverbs make 
mention of Sheol, the realm of Shades, (Rephaim), only when 
speaking of the final lot of the wicked. It is thither that the 



206 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

paths of the adulteress lead (Prov. 2: 1815: 5; 7: 27; 9: 18); 
while so to speak, a veil is drawn over the state of the righte- 
ous in Hades. 

The doctrine of the Hhokhma has often been designated as 
pure Eudemonism, i. e., as teaching that wisdom and righteous- 
ness are but means for the attainment of earthly prosperity as 
the proper object of life. On the contrary, however, it could 
not be more distinctly stated than it is in the Book of Proverbs* 
that it is wrong too make earthly prosperity, in and for itself, 
the object of life (Prov. 11: 4, 28; 15: 16; etc.). The beautiful 
passage, Prov. 30: 7 — 9, may especially be mentioned, as show- 
ing how earthly prosperity is ever to be prized only in 
proportion as it is accompanied by godly and righteous con- 
duct. 

§ 244. Realization of Moral Good in the Various Social Spheres. 

Moral good is not realized in individual life alone, but also 
in the various social spheres. 

1) Domestic happiness is the chief of those good things 
with which the fear of God is rewarded. Both the conjugal 
and the parental relations are regarded by the Hhokhma with 
a moral and religious seriousness, the like of which is not found 
in anyone of the nations of antiquity. Marriage is designated 
as a covenant of God (Prov. 2: 17). "House and riches are 
an inheritance from fathers: but a prudent wife is from the 
Lord" (Prov. 19: 14), i. <?., marriages are made in heaven. No 
sin is more frequently or more sharply reproved in Proverbs 
than the violation of conjugal fidelity. With this corres- 
ponds the appreciation of the blessing of children. Hence it is 
expressly required that children be carefully trained, by strict 
discipline and religious and moral instruction. Parents are also 
warned to begin the instruction of their children betimes, and 
thus to train them for their whole life. A complete statement 
of the educational precepts given in the Proverbs would here 
be out of place. It may suffice to point out how earnestly dili- 
gence is insisted on, and sloth branded as a contemptible thing 
(6: 6 — 11; 10: 26; 15: 19; 19: 15, 24; 20: 4, 13; 26: 13 — 16); how 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 207 

temperance (13: 25; 23: 19 — 21) and chastity are required, and 
temptations to unchastity warned against (7: 5 — 23, 23: 26 — 28). 
The education of girls is never separately treated of in Prov- 
erbs. It is a self-evident assumption that they too were in- 
structed in the law. The end contemplated in female 
education may be perceived from the description of the excel- 
lent woman in Prov. 31: 10 — 31, and the passages Prov. 11: 
16, 22; 12: 4; etc. 

2) Political life and well-ordered civil institutions are re- 
garded as component parts of moral good. The view that 
kings and judges are the organs of the Divine government of the 
world, and viceregents of the Supreme Ruler and Judge, and 
that as such they are appointed to administer justice, especially 
by executing severe judgment upon the wicked, forms the 
foundation of a whole series of proverbs (Prov. 16: 12 — 15; 
20: 8, 26; etc.). All political wisdom is comprised in the say- 
ing: " Righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach 
to any people" (Prov. 14: 34). 

4. The Enigmas of Human Life. The Struggle for their Solution (§ 245 
—248). 

§ 245. The Enigmas themselves. 

That which above all else gave rise to the struggle between 
faith and doubt, was the perception that the actual course of 
events did not harmonize with the postulate of the doctrine of 
retribution, — that the God who judges righteously did not 
make His righteous judgment evident in what befell either 
nations or individuals. It is on this account that Job is so 
often reproached by his friends for resembling the wicked by 
disputing the Divine retribution. While the perplexities 
caused by the fortunes of nations were solved for the prophets 
by the view afforded them of the consummation of the Divine 
kingdom, — of the day of the Lord when judgment and deliver- 
ance should manifest the Divine righteousness, — it was concern- 
ing the enigmas of individual life, presented by the prosperity 
of the wicked and the calamities of the godly, that the reflecting 
mind of the Old Testament sages struggled to obtain light. 



208 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA, 

Several of the Psalms dwell on this matter, which is the spec- 
ial subject of the whole Book of Job. 

§ 246. The Struggle to solve the Enigmas relating to this Subject in the 
Psalms. 

In those Psalms which relate to the contradiction existing 
between the moral worth of an individual and his external cir- 
cumstances, we generally find that the knot is not untied, but 
simply cut. Another special feature is to be remarked in those 
Psalms in which that judgment upon his enemies which the 
Psalmist confidently entreats is also in measure announced — 
the so-called imprecatory Psalms, of which Ps. 59, 69, and 
109 are the strongest. Instead of being shocked at them, we 
need simply to understand them. And it is easy to perceive 
that what we find in them is no private feeling of anger venting 
itself in curses, but that they are the product of zeal for the 
honor of that God who is attacked in His servants (Ps. 69: 9). 

The New Testament itself knows of no other final recon- 
ciliation of the contradiction introduced into the world by the 
existence of evil than that which is accomplished by judgment. 
But the difference between the two Testaments lies in the cir- 
cumstance that the Old Testament, referring, as far as retribu- 
tion is concerned, exclusively to this life, does not afford the 
same scope for the Divine long suffering as the New, and must 
demand an actual and adequate sentence, an infliction of judg- 
ment upon the ungodly within the limits of earthly existence. 
The solution furnished by certain Psalms is not a dogmatic 
one, i. e. y no doctrine actually leading beyond the limits of 
Mosaism is arrived at. It is rather a solution which is subjec- 
tive and personal. The communion with God to which the 
Psalmist has been admitted asserts itself with such strength, 
that he not only finds therein his full compensation for the 
prosperity of the wicked, but, rising for the moment superior 
to death and Sheol, knows himself to be inseparably united to 
God. The first chief passage in which the feeling of saving 
and indissoluble union with God is poured forth is Ps. 16. To 
this feeling we must certainly refer such passages as Ps. 48: 14 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 209 

and 68 : 20, which some have also interpreted of deliverance 
from death in the New Testament sense. In Ps. 73: 26, the 
Psalmist expresses his confidence that even if his heart fails in 
death, his communion with God cannot be dissolved. 
§ 247. Solution of the Enigmas in the Book of Job. 

All the enigmas with which Israelitish wisdom was occu- 
pied are discussed in the Book of Job, and every solution pro- 
duced upon Old Testament soil is attempted. A fragment of 
Old Testament life is brought before us, and it is shown by- 
Job's example, how a righteous man may fall into such griev- 
ous temptation as to threaten his trust in God with shipwreck, 
and how the struggles of faith at last result in victory. This 
book has often been contrasted with Mosaism, as coming to a 
formal rupture with the doctrine of retribution. This is, how- 
ever, far Irom being the case, — the Mosaic doctrine of retribu- 
tion being, on the contrary, expressly confirmed by the issue? 
viz., the abundant compensation of the hero of the book for his 
sufferings. 

This book teaches us to recognize a fourfold purpose in 
huma?i suffering. 1) There is a penal suffering with which 
God visits the ungodly. This proposition is discussed in 
manifold aspects by the three friends of fob (see especially 
ch. 8 ; 15: 20 — 35; ch. 18 and 20), and at last conceded by Job 
himself (27: 11 — 23). 2) There is a Divine chastisement im- 
posed upon all men, which is necessarily due to the natural 
impurity and sinfulness of human nature, and must accordingly 
be borne by the righteous also. This is the doctrine which 
Eliphaz advances in his first speech, in explanation of the 
calamities of Job (ch. 4), where in verses 12 — 16, he refers to 
a revelation imparted to him in a night vision. 3) There is 
also a special testing and purifying of the righteous imposed 
upon them by the love of God, for the purpose of delivering 
them from some secret pride, of leading them to humble 
and penitent self-knowledge, and of thus insuring to them the 
Divine favor. This is the doctrine which Elihu brings forward 
in Job 33: 14 — 30; 36: 5 — 15. 4) There is a suffering which 



210 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

is designed to manifest the triumph of faith and the fidelity of 
the righteous. This it is which was the immediate object of 
Job's afflictions, as already alluded to in the prologue of the 
book, and evidenced to all in the epilogue. 

But while the Book of Job thus oners a key to these afflic- 
tions of the righteous, it at the same time furnishes reasons for 
believing in the righteous providence of God, from the consid- 
eration of His character and His dominion over nature, 
i) Divine providence may be inferred from the character of 
God. The fundamental thought of the profound speech of 
Elihu (Job 34 : 10 sqq.) is; God, by reason of His power over 
the world, can never be unjust. God cannot be unjust to that 
which He Himself called into existence, and maintains therein. 
He so directs the lot of individuals and nations, that right is 
at last made manifest. 2) But Divine Providence may also be 
inferred from God's dominion over nature. This proposition 
is already prepared for in Job 28, the idea being there carried 
out that man, though incapable of becoming possessed of the 
Divine wisdom itself, is yet able to recognize its traces in the 
whole economy of nature, and may therefore, with regard to 
the Divine appointment of human life, resign himself to, and 
fall back on, the fear of God. This point of view is especially 
maintained by Elihu. 

§ 248. Continuation. 

The question which still remains to be discussed is, what 
position does the Book of Job, which keeps the attention di- 
rected to the state of man after death, beyond any book of the 
Old Testament, occupy with regard to the doctrine of immor- 
tality? The notion that its direct purpose is to prove the doc- 
trine of the immortality of the human soul, rests upon a 
misconception. It is, however, true that in it are deposited the 
presuppositions of the hope of eternal life But that final 
solution of all enigmas, that the sufferings of this pres- 
ent world are not worthy to be compared with the glory that 
shall be revealed in the children of God, was not discovered by 
Job, nor by the Old Testament in general. By reason of the 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 211 

constant connection existing between revealed knowledge and 
the facts of revelation, a belief in eternal life which should be 
truly stable could not arise until the acquisition of eternal life, 
as faith in Him who in His own person overcame death and 
brought life and immortality to light, and who through His re- 
deeming work has perfected also the saints of the Old Testa- 
ment (Heb. n: 40). 

5. Renunciation of the Solution in the Book of Eeelesiastes(%249, 250). 

§ 249. Standpoint of this Book. Inquiry concerning Divine Retribution 
and Immortality. 

The Book of Koheleth or Ecclesiastes forms the conclusion 
of the canonical Old Testament Hhokhma. Its standpoint 
may be briefly designated as that of resignation — an abandon- 
ment of the attempt to comprehend the Divine government of 
the world, the reality of which to faith, it however, firmly holds. 
This book is equally misunderstood when its author is credited 
with a knowledge beyond the limits of the Old Testament, 
and especially with the knowledge of eternal life, etc., and 
when he is regarded as a fatalist or an Epicurean. So little 
does this book preach infidelity, that its author does not sur- 
render even one of the doctrines transmitted to him. That 
there is a Divine government of the world, that there is a 
righteous retribution, faith may not question: it is the how of 
these matters that man is unable to comprehend. Man is not 
able to understand the result produced by the God-ordained 
course of the world. This appears especially in respect to 
Divine Retribtition. Experience is seen by the author of the 
Book of Ecclesiastes to be always at variance with the adoption 
of this doctrine. To this is added the sad experience of the 
impunity of the wicked. Still all this must not destroy the 
postulate of faith (Eccles. 8: 12, 13). 

With reference to the question whether Ecclesiastes teaches 
the immortality of man, we answer that the author of this book 
distinctly assumes that there is a future retribution. Towards 
the close of the book, the author, dismissing all the doubts re- 



212 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

suiting from natural observation, positively expresses (Eccles. 
12: 7) the tenet that the spirit of man returns to God who gave 
it; and in 12: 14 compared with 11: 9, that God will bring 
every secret thing to judgment, whether it be good or whether 
it be evil. 

§ 250. Moral Teaching of the Book. Conclusion. 
The moral teaching imparted in this book corresponds 
with the standpoint of resignation which it occupies. Pru- 
dence, moderation in all things, is the quality to be most ur- 
gently recommended. The gladness which imparts vigor to 
the inner life is, however, not found in the Preacher. In pa- 
tient composure the wise man does at all times just that which 
is seasonable, and commits the issue to God. The frame ol 
mind possessed by the wise man in the midst of all this com- 
posure is shown in Eccles. 7 : 2 — 4. The dialectics of the Book 
of Ecclesiastes, with their mainly negative result, forms a 
transition from the Old to the New Testament. For from a 
persuasion of the vanity of all earthly good, arises the longing 
after the eternal and saving blessings of the New Testament, 
and the desire for the coming of that immutable kingdom of 
God announced by prophecy, in which the inquiries of Old 
Testament and all other wisdom have found their enduring ob- 
ject. 



SELECT LITERATURE 

OF 

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

I. Of Biblical Theology in General. 

1. Beck, J. T. Christliehe Lehrwissensehaft. Stuttgart, 1841. 

2. Briggs, C. A. Biblical Study, etc. Pp. 367-^105. New York, 1883. 

3. Buddeus J. F. Historia Eeelesiastica Veteris Testamenti, etc. Ed. 3. 
1726, 1729. 2 Bde. 

A work of permanent value. 

4. Glassius, Sal. Philologia Sacra, etc. Leipsic, 1705. 

This edition by Olearius is the best. 

5. Hofmann, J. Chr. K. Der Schriftbeweis. 3 Bde. 2. Aufl. Noerd- 
lingen 1857—1860. 

6. Koehler, A. Biblisehe Geschiehte des Alten Testaments. 2 Bde. 
Erlangen, 1877—82. 

7. Oehler, G. F. Theology of the Old Testament. Edited by Day. 
New York, 1883. 

This edition is a revision of the Edinburgh edition (1874, 75), 
and incorporates the additions of the second German edition, 
revised by Th. Oehler, 1882. 

8. Boos, M. F. Einleitung in die biblischen Geschichten des Alten Testa- 
ments, etc. Reprinted. Stuttgart, 1876. 

9. Schultz, F. W. Theologie des Alten Testaments. In Zoeckler's 
Handbuch der theologischen Wissenschaften. Noerdlingen, 1883. 

10. Schultz, Herm, Alttestamentliche Theologie. 2. Aufl. Frankfurt 
a. M. XII, 838 pp., 1878. 

Valuable articles on special topics will be found in the Dic- 
tionaries and Encyclopaedias edited by Fairbairn, Hamburger, 
Herzog-Plitt-Hauck, Kitto-Alexander, M'Clintock-Strong, 
Riehm, Schaff-Herzog, Schenkel, Smith-Hackett-Abbot, and 
Winer. 

II. Of Special Topics of Biblical Theology. 

1. OF THE ANGELS. 

1. Barry. Alfred. Article on Angels in Smith's Bible Dictionary. 
Compare especially the full literature given by Hackett and 
Abbot, covering the whole subject (Jewish notions, Early 
Fathers, Representation in Christian Art, "Angel of Jehovah", 
Modern works). 



214 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA, 

2. Duke, H. H. The Holy Angels; their nature and employments 
as recorded in the Word of God. . London, 1875. 

3. Dunn, L. R. The Angels of God. New York, 1881. 

4. Godet, F. Studies on the Old Testament. Third edition. New 
York, 1884. 

5. Hengstenberg, E. W. The Books of Moses and Equpt. Andover. 
1843. 

Essay on Cherubim, appended to Commentary on 

Ezekiel, Pp. 499—538. Edinburgh, 1869. 

6. Hofmann, J. Chr. K. Der Schriftbeweis. Vol. 1. 314—403. 

7. Kurtz, J. XL Die Ehen der Soehne Gottes, etc. Berlin, 1857. 

8. Ode J. Commentarius de Angelis. Traj . ad Rhen., 1739. 

An exhaustive work of more than 1100 quarto pages. 

9. Whately, R. Scripture Revelations concerning Good and Evil Angels. 
Philadelphia, 1856. 

See the various Lexicons on Angels, Cherubim, Gabriel, 
Michael, Seraphim, Angel of Jehovah, etc. 

See works on Biblical Theology and Systematic Theology. 
The literature of this subject is immense. 

2. OF CREATION. 

1. Birks, T. R. The Scripture Doctrine of Creation, etc. New York, 
1875. 

2. Buddensieg, R. Die Assyrischen Ausgrabungen und das Alte Testa- 
ment. Heilb., 1880. 

3. Calder wood, Henry. The Relations of Science and Religion. Pp.13 
323. New York, 1881. 

4. Dawson, J. W. Nature and the Bible. Pp. 257. New York, 1875. 
5 The Origin of the World, etc. New York, 1877. 

6. Delitzsch, Franz. Commentar ueber die Genesis. 4th edition, 
Leipsic, 1872. Facile princeps. 

7. Godet, F. Biblical Studies on the Old Testament. New York, 1884. 

8. Guyot, A. Creation, etc. New York, 1884. 

9. Kurtz, J. II. The Bible and Astronomy. Philadelphia, 1861. 
(Fifth German Edition, 1865). 

10. Lewis, T. The Six Days of Creation, etc. Pp. 416. New York, 
1879. 

11. Luthardt, C. E. Fundamental Truths of Christianity. Edinburgh, 
1869. 

12 McCaul, A. The Mosaic Record of Creation, In Aids to Faith. 
London, 1861. 

13. Pratt, John H. Scripture and Science not at Variance. Seventh 
edition. London, 1872. 

14. Reusch, F. H. Bibel und Natur. 4. Aufl. Bonn, 1876. 

15. Schultz, F. W. Die Schoepfungsgeschichte nach Naturwissensehaft 
und Bibel. Gotha, 1865. 



SELECT LITERATURE. 215 

16. Zoeckler, Otto. Die Urgeschichte der Erde und des Menschen. Gue- 

tersloh, 1868. 
17 Gesehiehte der Beziehungen zw. Theol. und Naturwis- 

sensehaft, etc. 2 vols. Guetersloh, 1877, 79. 

3. OF GOD. 

1. Alexander, W. Lindsay. The Connection and Harmony of the Old 
and New Testaments. London, 1853. 

Also the same author's Articles in Kitto (Alexander's edition). 

2. Ewald, H. Lehre der Bibel von Gott, etc 4 Bde. Leipsic, 1871—1876. 

An English translation is now appearing. 

3. Hengstenberg, E. W. Dissertations on the Genuineness of the Pen- 
tateuch. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1847. 

4. Hoelemann, H. G. Bibelstudien. Vol. 1. Leipsic, 1861. 

5. Noeldecke. Ueber den Gottesnamen EL Berlin. 1880, 

6. Oehler, G. T. Articles on Elohim and Jehovah in Herzog, first 
edition. Re- written by Delitzch for the second edition. 

7. Schmieder. Betraehtungen ueber das hohepriesterliche Gebet. 1848. 

"A book which is not known so well as it deserves to be" 
(Oehler). 

8. Wright, W. A. Article on Jehovah in Smith's Bible Dictionary. 

See works on Old Testament Theology already cited, and 
works on Systematic Theology. 

4. PENTATEUCH CRITICISM. 

1. Binnie, W. The Proposed Reconstruction of Old Testament History. 
"xhird edition. Edinburgh, 1880. 

2. Boehl, E. Zum Gesetz u zum Zeugniss. Wien, 1883. 

3. Curtiss, S. S. The Levitieal Priests. Edinburgh, 1877. 

4. Green, William Henry. Moses and the Prophets, New York, 1883- 

The Hebrew Feasts in relation to recent 

critical Hypotheses concerning the Pentateuch New York, 1885, 

5. Smith, W. Robertson. The Old Testament in the Jewish Church. 
New York, 1881. 

6. Watts, Robert. The Newer Criticism and the Analogy of Faith. Third 
edition. Edinburgh, 1882. 

5. OF PROPHECY. 

1. Boehl, E. Christologie des Alten Testamentes, etc. Wien, 1882. 

2. Davison. John. Discourses on Propheey, etc. (Warburtonian 
Lecture). Fourth edition. London, 1839. 

3. Delitzsch, Franz. Die bibl. prophet. Theologie, etc. Leipsic, 1845. 
4 Messianic Propheey. Translated by Prof. 

' Curtiss. Edinburgh, 1880. 

5 Old Testament History of Redemption. Edin- 
burgh, 1881. 



216 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

ft. Fairbairn, P. Prophecy, viewed in respeet to its distintive nature, etc. 
Second edition, 1866. 

7. Gloag, Paton J. The Messianie Propheeies. Baird Lectures for 
1879. Edinburgh, 1879. 

8. Green, William Henry. Moses and the Prophets. New York, 
1883. 

9. Hengstenberg, E. W. Christology of the Old Testament, etc. 4 
vols. Edinburgh, 1854, 56, 58. 

10. Hofmann. J. C. K. Weissagung u. Erfuelling, etc. 2 vols. Noerd- 
lingen, 1841—44. 

11. Kueper. Das Prophetenthum des Alten Bundes. 1870. 

12. Orelli, C. von. The Old Testament Prophecy of the Consummation of 
God's Kingdom, etc. Edinburgh, 1885. 

13. Eiehm, E. Messianic Prophecy, etc. Edinburgh,1875. 

14. Smith, J. Pye. The Scripture Testimony to the Messiah, etc. 2 vols. 
Fifth edition. Edinburgh, 1859. 

15. Smith, E. Payne. Prophecy a Reparation for Christ. Bampton 
Lectures for 1869. London, 1870. 

16. Smith, W. B. The Prophets of Israel. New York, 1882. 

6. OF BIBLICAL PSYCHOLOGY. 

1. Beck, J. T. Outlines of Biblical Psychology. Third Edition. Edin- 
burgh, 1877. 

2. Delitzsch, Franz. A System of Biblical Psychology. Second edition. 
Edinburgh 1869. 

3. Goeschel. Der Menseh naeh Leib, Seele und Geist, etc. Leipsic, 1856. 

4. Haussmann, J. G. F. Die Biblische Lehre vom Menschen. 1848. 

5. Heard, J. B. The Tripartite Nature of Man. Fifth edition. Edin- 
burgh, 1885. 

6. Laidlaw, John, The Bible Doctrine of Man. Seventh series of 
Cunningham Lectures. Edinburgh, 1883. 

7. Ruloff. Die Lehre vom Menschen naeh Geist, Seele, und Leib. 1858. 

8. Wendt. Die Begriffe Fleiseh und Geist im bibl. Spraehgebraueh. Gotha, 
1878, 

9. ZSckler, Otto. Die Lehre vom Urstand des Menschen, etc. Gueters- 
loh, 1879. 

7. OF THE SABBATH. 

1. Cox, Robert. The Literature of the Sabbath Question. 2 vols. Edin- 
burgh, 1865. 

2. Gilfillan, James. The Sabbath viewed in the light of Reason, 
Revelation, and History, with sketches of its Literature. New 
York, 1862. 

3. Hessey, J. A. Sunday. Its Origin, History and Present Obliga- 
tion. Bampton Lectures for 1860. Fourth edition. London, 
1880. 



SELECT LITERATURE. 217 

8. OF SACRIFICES. 

1. Baehr, K. C. W. T. Symbolik des Mos. Kultus. 2 Bde. Heidelberg, 

1837, 39. A second edition of first volume appeared in 1874. 

2. Cave, Alfred. The Scriptural Doctrine of Sacrifice. Edinburgh, 
1877. 

3. Delitzsch, F. Commentary on Hebrews. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1882. 

4. Dilluiann, A. Die Bucher Exodus und Leviticus. Leipsic, 1880. 

5. Faber, G. S. A Treatise on the Origin of Expiatory Sacrifice. Lon- 
don, 1827. 

6. Hengstenberg, E. W. The Saerifiees of Holy Scripture. Pp. 367 
— 409 of Commentary on Ecclesiastes with other Treatises. Philadel- 
phia, 1860. 

7 Egypt and the Books of Moses. Edinburgh, 1845. 

8. Jukes, A. The Law of the Offerings, etc. Boston. No date. 

9. Keil, C. F. Handbuch der biblisehen Arehceologie. Second edition. 
Frankfurt, 1875. 

10. Kliefoth, Th. Liturgische Abhandlungen. Yol. 4. 1. Der alt-und 
neut. Cultus. Schwerin, 1858. 

11. Kueper. Das Priesterthum des A. Bundes. Berlin, 1866. 

12. Kurtz, J, H. Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament. Edinburgh' 
1863. 

13. Magee, Win. On Atonement and Sacrifice. London, 1856. 

14. Outram, Two Dissertations on Sacrifices, etc. Translated by John 
Allen. London, 1828. 

15. Philippi, F. A. Rirchliehe Glaubenslehre. TV. 2. Guetersloh, 1870. 

16. Wangeinann. Das Opfer nach d. h. Sehrift, etc. 2 Bde. Berlin, 1866. 

See the various articles on this topic in the Lexicons of 
Herzog, Kitto, Riehm, Smith, and Winer. 

9. OF SIN. 

1. Mueller, Julius. The Christian Doctrine of Sin. Translated from 
the Fifth Edition of the German. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1868. 
Sixth German Edition. 2 vols. Stuttgart, 1877. 

2. Philippi, F. A. Die Lehre von der Suende. In third volume of his 

"Kirchliche Glaubenslehre", pp. 1—250. Third edition. Gueters- 
loh, 1884. 

3. Tholuck, A. Die Lehre von der Suende u. v. Versoehner. 9th edition, 

1870. 

4. Tulloch, John. The Christian Doctrine of Sin. New York, (1876). 

Compare works on Systematic Theology. 

10. OF THE STATE AFTER DEATH. 

1. Alger, Wm. R. A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life. 
Tenth Edition. With a complete Bibliography by Ezra Abbot. 
Boston, 1878. 



218 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

2. Boettcher. De inferis rebusque post mortem futuris. Dresden, 1846. 

The literature of the subject up to the year 1844 is given in 
this learned work. 

3. Cremer, H. Beyond the Grave. With an Introduction by A. A. 
Hodge. New York, 1886. 

4. Goeschel, C. F. Der Menseh nach Leib, Seele, und Geist, diesseits und 
jenseits. Leipsic, 1856. 

5. Humphrey, W. G. The Doctrine of a Future State, Hulsean Lectures 
for 1849. London, 1850. 

6. Loescher, V. E. Auserlesene Sammlung der besten und neueren 
Schriften vom Zustand der Seele naeh dem Tode. Dresden, 1735. 

7. Luthardt, C. E. DieLehre v. d. letzten Dingen. 3 Aufl. Leipsic, 1885. 

8. Perowne, J. J. 8. Immortality. Hulsean Lectures for 1868. Lon- 

don 1869. 

9. Rinck, H. W. Vom Zustand naeh dem Tode. Second edition. 

Ludwigsburg and Basel, 1866. 

10. Rudlofl. Die Lehre vom Mensehen, etc. Second edition. Gotha 
1863. 

11. Spiess. Edm. Entwiekelungsgeschichte der Vor stellungen von Zustand 
nach dem Tode. Jena, 1877. 

12. Whately, R. View of the Scripture Revelations concerning a 
Future State. London, 1870. 

See also works on Biblical Psychology, on Eschatology, and 
on Systematic Theology. 

11. OF THE TABERNACLE AND THE TEMPLE. 

1. Atwater. E. E. The Sacred Tabernacle of the Hebrews. New York, 

1875. 

2. Bannister, J. T. The Temples of the Hebrews, etc. London, 1866. 

3. Edersheim, Alfred. The Temple. Its Ministry and Services as 
they were in the time of Christ. London. No date. 

4. Keil, C. F. Der Tempel Solomo's. Dorpat, 1839. 

5. Riggenbach. Die Mosoische Stiftshuette. Second edition, 1867, 

12. OF THE WISDOM LITERATURE. 

1. Job. See the Commentaries of Cook, Cox, Davidson, Delitzsch, 

Dillmann and Zoeckler. 

2. Proverbs. See the Commentaries of Delitzsch, Plumptre, and 

Zoeckler. 

3. Eeclesiastes. See the Commentaries of Cox, Delitzsch, Ginsburg, 

Wright and Zoeckler. 



INDEX. 



Abaddon and death, 71 

Abraham, 29, 30; trial of, 31, 32 

Adonai, 44 

Adultery, sin of, 92; trial of sus- 
pected, 126 

Ahab, 149 

Ahaz, 156 

Altar, the, 98, 99; meaning of, 
100, 101 

Analogy of faith, 21 

Angel of the Lord, doctrine of, 
54-56 

Angel ologv. Mosaic, 56, 57; pro- 
phetic, 164-169 

Angels, fall of, 26 n.; doctrine 
of, 166-169; office of, 166, 167; 
orders of, 166, 167 

Anima and Animus, 63, 64 

Animal offerings, 106; ritual of, 
108-112 

Anthropology, 60-72 

Anthropomorphisms, 46 

Anthropopathies, 48 

Antichrist, the, 188 

Apologetics, works on, 12 

Apostles, life of, 7, 8; lives of, 
12,13 

Ark of the Covenant, 100; mean- 
ing of, 101, 102 

Athaliah, 155 

Atonement, day of, 125; ritual 
of, 121-123; signification of, 
123-125, vicarious, 123, 124; 
133. 134 

Attributes of God, 43-47 

Authority of Scripture, 21 

Avenging of blood, 94, 95 

Azazel, 122, 123, 124, 170, 171 

Balaam and Balak, 37 
Bath-Kol, 54 
Biblical Archaeology, 16 
Biblical characters, works on, 13, 
14 



Biblical Introduction, 16 
Biblical Theology, see Theology 

of O. T. 
Blessing and curse, 79, 80 
Blood, use made of, 109-111, 120 
Blood revenge, 88 ; 94, 95 
Body, soul and spirit, 62-64 
Bondage, in time of Patriarchs, 

95, 96; regulations concerning, 

96 97 
Burnt-offering, 112, 113 

Cainites, 27 

Candlestick, the golden, 99; 
meaning of, 101 

Canon of Old Testament, 17 

Captivity of ten tribes, 152; of 
Judah, 159 

Cherubim, form of the, 103; 
meaning of, 103 

Children, education of by par- 
ents 92 93 

Christ', life of, 6, 7; lives of, 10, 11 

Chronology of Bible, 3-5; works 
on, 12 

Circumcision, 78, 79; historical 
origin of, 78; religious import 
of, 78, 79 

Corporal punishment, 89 

Covenant, the Divine, 72-80; the 
new, with Israel, 189, 190; na- 
ture of, 190 

Creation, account of, 25, 26; doc- 
trine of, 48, 49, 202 

Cyrus, 161 

Daniel, 160; four kingdoms of, 

188 
David, reign of, 142,143; unites 

three theocratic dignities, 142; 

religious development of, 142, 

143; Psalms of, 143; form of 

worship under 143 
Day of the Lord, the, 186 



220 



THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 



Death, is the consequence of sin, 
69; state of man after, 70-72; 
shall be destroyed, 191-193 

Decalogue, the, 76-79 

Divine name, meaning of, 52, 53 

Divine voice, meaning of, 53, 54 

Divorce, right of, 92 

Dreams, 59 

Ecclesiastes, stand-point of 
book of, 211; moral teaching of 
book of, 212 

Education, importance of, 93, 
206, 207 

Egypt, Israel in 34, 35 

El, 40 

El-Elyon, 41 

Elijah, 149 

Elisha, 149 

Eloah, 40 

Elohim, 41 

El-Shaddai, 42 

Election of Israel, 73, 74; forms 
in which it is expressed, 74 

Esther, book of, 162 

Eternity of God, 43 

Evil, origin of, 26; moral and 
physical, 50-52 

Exegetical Theology, how re- 
lated to Hist. Theology, 1 

Ezekiel, 158, 159 

Ezra, administration of, 162, 163 

Faith, belongs to sphere of 
heart, 64; justification by 172- 
174; definition of, 173 

Faithfulness of God, 47 

Family inheritance, to be pre- 
served, 94 

Fermentation forbidden in of- 
ferings, 107 

Flesh, the, 62 

Flood, tradition of, 27 and n. 

Food-offering, ritual of, 112 

Forgiveness of sin, 190 

Free-will offering, 114 

Gabriel, 168 

Gedeliah, 159, 160 

God, Mosaic idea of, 40-48 ; names 

of, 40-42; attributes of, 43-48; 

eternity of, 43; immutability 



of, 43; unity of, 44; is life, 44; 
holiness of, 45; omnipresence 
of, 46; spirituality of , 46; right- 
eousness of, 47 ; faithfulness of, 
47 ; jealousy of, 47, 48; relation 
of, to the world, 48; meaning 
of name of, 52, 53; coun- 
tenance and glory of, 53, 57 ; 
penal justice of, 80 
Gog and Magog, 187 

Haggai, 161, 162 

Hardening of heart, 52, 68, 69 

Harmonies of the Gospels, 11 

Heart, and soul, 63, 64; man is 
characterized by his, 64; har- 
dening of the 52, 68, 69 

Heathen, how related to the 
kingdom of God, 186; judg- 
ment upon, 187, 188; shall be 
admitted into the kingdom of 
God, 193-195 

Heaven, host of, 165-167 

Heiresses, laws concerning, 93 

Hezekiah, 156 

Hhakliamim the, 146 

Hherem, 115, 116 

Hhokhma, see Wisdom. 

High Priest, the 85, 86; office of, 
85; consecration of, 86; mean- 
ing of dress of, 86 

Historical Theology, defined, 1; 
literature of, 8 

History of O. T., 2-5; 16; chro- 
nology of, 3-5; divisions of, 2; 
importance of study of, 2; 
sources of, 2, 3; text-books, 8, 9 

History, contemporary, 9, 10; of 
Jews in later times, 10; of New 
Testament, 6-8; text-books, 
8,9 

Holiness of God, 45, 46 

Holy Spirit, 58, 59 

Holy Place, 99 

Holy Place, Most, 100 

Immortality, doctrine of in book 
of Job, 210, 211; in book of 
Ecclesiastes, 211, 212 

Incense, altar of, 99; meaning of, 
101 

Inheritance, law of, 93-95 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 



221 



Isaac, 32 

Israel in Egypt, 34, 35 

Israel, history of people of, 2-5; 
chronology of kingdom of, 4, 
5; literature of history of, 8, 9; 
election of, the free act of 
God's love, 73, 74; how repre- 
sented before God, 82; restora- 
tion of, 189-181 ; new covenant 
with, 189, 190 

Jacob, 32, 33; prophetic blessing 
of, 33 

Jealousy of God, 47, 48 

Jehosaphat, 154, 155 

Jehovah, pronunciation of, 42; 
signification of, 42; age and 
origin of name, 42; attributes 
derived from name, 43, 44; doc- 
trine of Angel of, 54-56 Saba- 
oth, 164-167 

Jehu, 150; dynasty of, 151 

Jephthah, narrative of, 137, 138 

Jeremiah, 157, 158, 159 

Jeroboam I, reign of, 148 

Jerusalem, destruction of, 159 

Jesus, life of, 6, 7; lives of, 10, 11 

Jews, literature of history of, 
9,10 

Jezebel, 149, 150 

Job, lessons of the book of, 209, 
211 

Jonah, 151 

Joshua, 38, 39 

Josiah, 157 

Jubilee, year of, 130, 131; import 
of, 131, 132 

Judah history of kingdom of, 
153-160; captivity of, 159; chro- 
nology of kingdom of, 4, 5 

Judge, office of, 135, 136 

Judges, times of, 135-140; relig- 
ious condition of times, 136, 
137 

Judgment, the 186-188; upon 
Israel, 186, 187, 189; upon the 
heathen nations, 187, 188 

Jus talionis, 89 

Justice, the course of, 88, 89 

Justification by faith, 172-174 

Kapporeth, the, 100; meaning of, 
102 



King, law concerning a, 89, 90; 
consecration of, 140, 141 

Kingdom of God, design of, 185, 
186; how related to the hea- 
then, 186 

Law, the, 75—78; tables of, 100, 

102; ceremonial, 171; moral 171 

Laying on of hands, in offerings, 

120 
Leper, purification of the, 123 
Levirate Marriage, the, 93, 94 
Levites, they, represent the peo- 
ple before Jehovah, 82; official 
functions of, 82; consecration 
of, 83; social position of, 83; 
support of, 83; service of, or- 
ganized by David 143, 144 
Life, the divine blessing of, 79 
Lord of Hosts, doctrine of, 164 

—167 
Lynch law forbidden, 88 

Malakh Jehovah, doctrine of 
54-56. 

Man, doctrine of, 60 — 72; idea 
of, 60, 61; divine image of 
60,61; relation to sex and race 
61, 62; unity of, 62; constituent 
parts of, 62, 63 primitive; state 
of, 65; sin in, 66—69; state of, 
after death, 69—72 

Manasseh, 156, 157 

Marriage, 61 ; law of, 90, 91 ; con- 
tract, 90, 91; bars to, 91, 92; 
dissolution of, 92; the Levir- 
ate, 93, 94 

Megiddo, battle of, 157 

Melchizedek, 30, 31 

Messiah, the, 168, 169; two-fold 
view of coming of, 195, 196; 
idea of, defined, 196, 197; de- 
velopment of idea of, 197, 198; 
office and work of, 198, 199; a 
suffering, 199; is the Branch, 
198, 200 

Messianic Psalms, 196, 197 

Michael, 168; 

Miracle, doctrine of, 57, 58; 
names of, 58 

Monogamy, 61 

Moses, 34—37; death of, 38 

Murder, to be avenged, 94, 95 



222 



THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA, 



Nahum, 156 

Nations, register of, 28, 29 

Nature, Old Testament view of, 

202, 203 
Nazaritism, 116, 117 
Nehemiah, 163 
Nephesh, 62 
New Testament, History of, 6, 7; 

literature of history of, 9, 10; 
" of times of, 10 

Nineveh, destruction of 158 
Noah, saying of, 28 

Oath, the, 98 

Offering, see Sacrifice; idea of, 

104, 105; pre-Mosaic, 27, 104, 

105; material of the, 106—108; 

animal, 106; vegetable, 107; 

burning of, 111, 112; various 

kinds of, 112—120; burnt, 112, 

113; peace, 113—115 
Old Testament, see History of 

O.T. 
Old Testament Theology, see 

Theology of O. T. 
Omnipresence of God, 48 
Omri, dynasty of, 149, 150 
Original state of man, 65,66 

Parents, relation of, to children, 
92, 93 

Passover, laws concerning, 132; 
significance of, 133 

Paul, life of, 8; lives of, 12, 13 

Peace-offering, name of, 113; 
three kinds of, 113, 114; ritual, 
114; signification of, 115 

Pentateuch, divisions of sacred 
history of, 25 

Pentecost, significance of, 134 

Perjury, 98 

Picturing God, wrong, 46 

Poetry, Hebrew, 146 

Polygamy, 61, 62, 91 

Prediction, a characteristic of 
prophecy 180 

Priests, calling of the, 84; conse- 
cration of 84, 85; maintenance 
of, 85 

Primitive state of man, 65, 66 

Prophecy, nature of, 174—184; 
office of, 180, 181; as defined 



in the early church, 176; in 
older Protestant Theology, 
176, 177; an inward intuition, 
177, 178; illustrated by ana- 
logies, 179; peculiarities of, 181, 
—184; fulfillment of, 182—184 

Prophet, definition of the, 139, 
174, 175 

Prophets, chronology of, 5; 
schools of, 140, 149, 150, 154 

Prophetic office, nature of, 138, 
139, 174, 175; object of, 139, 
180—184; beginnings of, 139 

Proverbs, the ethics of Book of, 
204—207; the family, 206; the 
state, 207 

Providence, divine, 50 — 52; may 
be inferred from the charac- 
ter of God, 210; from God's 
dominion over nature, 210 

Psalms, a great treasure, 143; 
the Messianic, 196, 197; the 
imprecatory, 208 

Punishment, the course of, 88, 
89; principle of, 89; corporal, 
89; vicarious, 124, 126 

Purification, means of, 125; acts 
of, 125, 126 

Purifications, Levitical, 125, 126 

Race, unity of, 28, 62 

Rechabites, the, 150 

Redemption, the future, 189-200; 
the restoration of Israel, 189- 
191; the reunion of the twelve 
tribes, 191; admission of the 
heathen, 193-195 

Remnant of Jacob, the, 189, 190 

Restoration of Israel, 189-191 

Resurrection, doctrine of, 192, 
193 

Retribution, the Divine, 79, 80: 
doctrine of, 207, 208, 211, 212 

Reunion of the twelve tribes, 191 

Revelation, biblical idea of, 18; 
doctrine of, 52; general and 
special, 18, 52; historical prog- 
ress of, 18, 19; unity of, 52-54; 
organs of, 59, 60 

Righteousness of God, 47 

Ruach, 62 



BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 



223 



Sabbath, antiquity of, 128; origin 
of, 128; idea of, 128, 129; cele- 
bration of, 129; of new moon, 
130 

Sabbatical year, laws concern- 
ing, 130; import of, 131, 132 

Sabaoth, Jehovah, 164-167 

Sacred history, 1-8; chronology 
of, 3-5; divisions of, 2, 3; text- 
books in, 8, 9 

Sacred seasons, times of, 126, 
127; celebration of, 127, 128 

Sacrifice, nature of first, 27; 
meaning of, 97, 104, 105; ma- 
terial of, 106-108, ritual of, 108- 
112; atoning, 118-125; passover, 
133; prophecies concerning, 
how interpreted, 195 

Salt in offerings, 107 

Salvation, O. T. experience of, 
173, 174 

Samaritans, origin of, 153; en- 
mity of, 161 

Samuel, 138 

Sanctuary, arrangement of, 99, 
100; meaning of, 100; utensils 
of, 99, 100; rooms, of, 100 

Satan, doctrine of, 169-171 

Saul, reign of, 141 

Sargon, 152 

Schools of the prophets, 140, 149, 
150, 154 

Scribes, the, 163 

Seasons, see Sacred seasons 

Seven, the number, 127 

Shalmanezer, 152 

Sheol, O. T. conception of, 70- 
72; differs from the grave, 71; 
condition of man in, 71, 72 

Shewhead, table of, 99; meaning 
of, 101 

Servants, right of, 95, 96; reg- 
ulations concerning, 96; posi- 
tion of non-Israelitish, 96, 97 

Sethites, 27, 56 

Sexual relation of man, 61 

Shekhina, the, 56, 56, 57 

Sin, origin of, 25, 50-52; God 
permits, 51, 52; formal and 
material principle of, 66; O. T. 
names for, 66, 67 ; as an inclina- 
tion, 67; hereditary, 67, 68; de- 



grees, 68, 69; connection with 

death, 69, 70; expiation of, 121; 

ruinous nature of, 171, 172; 

guilt of, 172 
Sin-offering, 118; ritual of, 119- 

121 
Sinai, Israel at, 36 
Solomon, reign of, 144-147; dark 

sides of reign of, 146, 147 
Sopherim, 163 
Soul, related to body and spirit, 

62-64: origin of. 70; state of, 

after death, 70-72 
Spirit, connection with body and 

soul, 62-64 
Spirituality of God, 46 
Substitution, idea of, 104 
Suffering, four-fold purpose of 

human, 209, 210 
Synagogue, the great, 163 
Synagogues, 160 

Tabernacles, feast of, 134, 135 

Taxes, the theocratic, 117, 118 

Temple, building of the, 144, 145; 
significance and dedication of, 
145, 146; rebuilding of , 161 

Ten commandments, 76-79; di- 
vision of, 76, 77; how divided 
between the two tables, 77, 78 

Ten tribes, the kingdom of, 147- 
152; captivity of, 152 

Terahites, 29 

Thank offering, 114 

Theology of Old Testament, def- 
inition, 15; how related to 
other disciplines, 16; sources, 
17 ; scientific stand-point of, 17 ; 
history of cultivation of, 20-23; 
method of, 25; divisions of , 24, 
25; literature of, 23, 24 

Tithes, 117, 118 

Trespass-offering, 118; ritual of, 
119 

Tribes, the twelve, 81, 82; sub-di- 
visions of, 90 

Trichotomy of man, 62-64 

Trinity, doctrine of, 59 n. 

Unchangeableness of God, 43 
Unity of God, 44 



224 



THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 



Unity of race, 28, 62 
Urim and Thummim, 



87 



Vegetable offerings, 107 
Visions, 59, 60 
Vows, 114; three kinds of, 
116 



115, 



Wilderness, wanderings in, 35- 
38 

Wisdom, Old Testament, prov- 
ince of, 146; a special depart- 
ment of knowledge, 200, 201; 
objective principle of, 201-203; 
subjective principle of, 204, 



205; an attribute of God, 202; 
personified, 202; controls hu- 
man affairs, 203 
Word of God, in worship, 97, 98 
World, creation of, 25, 26, 48, 49; 

preservation of, 49, 50 
Worship, essential character of, 
97; place of, 98-100; acts of, 
104-112; form of, under David, 
143, 144; prophecies concern- 
ing temple, how interpreted, 
195 

Zechariah, 162 
Zedekiah, 159 



THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 

AND METHODOLOGY. 

Based on HAGENBACH and KRAUTH. 
Part. I. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 

By REVERE FRANKLIN WEIDNER, 

Professor of Theology in August ana Theological Seminary, Rock Island, III. 

12mo, 184 pp. Sent post-paid on receipt of price, $1.25. 



"This work bears testimony of the Author's fitness for the import- 
ant undertaking of giving the English Church a safe Encyclopaedia 
of Theology." — Our Church Paper. 

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Exegetical Theology, and has been prepared with much care." — The 
Messenger, Philadelphia (Reformed). 

"This work will be a valuable aid to the pastor, the students in the 
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satisfactory treatment of the subject which special study for years en- 
ables Professor Weidner to give to the division of Exegetical Theology, 
the book is made exceedingly valuable." — The Workman, Pittsburgh. 

"Exegetical Theology is the first volume of a series which promises 
to be of marked value to many readers. . . . The work is a marvel 
of suggestiveness, while its complete lists of the best works on each 
subject mentioned are alone worth the price of the book. We shall 
look for the remaining volumes with interest." — The Interior, of Chi- 
cago. 

"Professor Weidner's book will not only prove very serviceable to 
theological students, in giving them a summary presentation of the sub- 
jects embraced in it, but it will be of great value to all ministers who 
study, in that it gives under each head the most important books on 
this subject, and these lists are brought down to the most recent pub- 
lications." — The Lutheran, Philadelphia. 

"A valuable work and the beginning of a no less valuable series of 
works in the science of theology. The book is intended primarily to 
assist the student in course, but is also designed to be of aid to the 
preacher, professor, or pastor in the hours of study and review. . . . 
The lectures of the late Dr. Krauth are largely drawn upon, and are 
seen to have been profound and practical." — The Standard, of Chi- 
cago. 



"It implies on the part of the author a wide knowledge of books, 
and evidence of this abounds in the volume. It is of course not meant 
for continuous perusal, but for students— for those who want to scan 
the whole field of theology and to mark the divisions thereof. For 
this class this book will be found useful, and for any one who wishes 
to know where a peculiar question is discussed, the volume will be very 
useful." — The Presbyterian, Philadelphia. 

"Professor Weidner correctly thinks that much is gained by placing 
in the hands of Theological students text-books, and that courses of 
lectures are poor as a substitute for the same material in print before the 
scholar's eyes, for his careful study. 

He has compiled from the very best sources accessible what his ex- 
perience has taught him will be to them most serviceable. . . . In- 
deed this little volume is as much a bibliography as it is a treatise 
on Encyclopaedia, and herein its most extended usefulness will be found." 
— Lutheran Church Review* 

"One of the first helps which the theological students requires is a 
guide to theological literature. Guides of this kind are not numerous 
in English, nor are they so satisfactory as the German books of The- 
ological "Encyclopaedia." . . . Professor Weidner begins a good 
work, therefore, in the publication of the first part of his Theological 
Encyclopaedia and Methodology, of which this first installment covers 
the Methodology and literature of Exegetical Theology. The Biblio- 
graphies, touching the various departments of exegetical study em- 
brace representative books in German and English, and they are not 
so crowded as to be cumbersome." — The Sunday-School Times, Phil- 
adelphia. 

"Professor Weidner's method is the sound and fruitful one pursued 
by all the best writers on the subject, but it is in no sense a translation. 
. , . His statements of a subject and of a line of argument are 
made with neatness, precision, and in that suggestive manner which is 
a prime merit in work, of this sort. The bibliography is not intended 
to be exhaustive on any topic. Selections are made of those which are 
considered best, .... and are adopted to the needs of American 
students. Bare titles are . not given, but, when it is possible, the 
bibliology is annotated. . . . It is a vigorous sketch of the subject." 
— The Independent, of New York. 



"The author's plan contemplates a complete outline view of the 
subject. His definitions and statements are brief, clear and discrimin- 
ating. It will prove admirably adopted to the work of the theological 
class-room. A feature of special value, which will be found useful by 
ministers in general, is found in the lists of books, or select literature, 
given in connection with each branch or aspect of the subject. These 
lists form a large part of the volume and are made with excellent dis- 
crimination. The whole work pleases us very much, and we shall be 
glad to see the three additional volumes or parts promised on Historical 
Theology, Systematic Theology, and Practical Theology." — Lutheran 
Quarterly, of Gettysburg, Pa. 

"In his selection of literature Professor Weidner has shown great 
care and skill. Only that which is of practical value is mentioned. 
The book is just what it purports to be, a text-book ; it is arranged for 
the wants of the student. But its use is not confined to the theological 
class-room. Ministers who study (alas that the number of those who 
do not study is so great!) will find in it valuable and helpful material." 
— The Old Testament Student, of Chicago. 

Sent post-paid on receipt of Price, $1,25 by the Publisher, 

H. B. GARNER, 

Successor to Smith, English & Co., (7IO Arch St.) 

Philadelphia, Pa. 



